t° V sTo' <$• °«u *•"• <^ .. V. ".To . 



« 



, » • o. 






v 






°o 






W 




s • • 



- . . = * A <^ "o » 



^°^ 



^ 



o V 







o. ♦; 



s • • 














4 o 



^t 



~l*. <n 



/7 _ vP v y^. 



4. -*44A/*~f A V 



<^ *°' 



** a> *i 

/**fc*X « c ° .<§& °- ^ *^* ^ 

%^ * e n o ° 




j> • l ' • * ^ cr 6 ° N ° ♦ **b 







5 A ^ 



*« *0, AT' *jfif^ 













I 






/£/*,. -d^LJm. &6»*At 

^ LECTURES 



YOUNG LADIES, 



COMPRISING 



OUTLINES AND APPLICATIONS OF THE DIFFERENT BRANCHES 



FEMALE EDUCATION. 



FOR THE USE OF FEMALE SCHOOLS. AND PRIVATE LIBRARIES. 



DELIVERED TO THE PUPILS OF 



®ros Jftmalt Seminars 



BY MRS. ALMIRA H. LINCOLN PHELPS, 

(Late Vice Principal of that Institution.) 

AUTHOR OF FAMILIAR LECTURES ON BOTANY, ETC. 




BOSTON: 
CARTER, HENDEE & CO. 

1833. 



» 



J% 






[Entored according to Act of Congress, in the year 1833, by 

Carter, Hendee & Co. 
in the Office of the Clerk of the District of Massachusetts.] 



f •" 



LATELY PUBLISHED, 

Lectures on School Keeping. By Samuel R. Hall. Third 
edition. 1'his work is intended to be a complete school teacher's 
manual, and contains all the necessary practical directions for 
their observance in the instruction and management of schools. 
It has been productive of much good, and were it in the hands of 
every teacher and carefully studied, it would produce an improve- 
ment in our common schools, almost beyond belief. So sensible 
of this are the enlightened legislators of New York, that they have 
passed an act authorising the commissioner to procure a copy for 
every district in the State, and it is to be hoped for the cause of 
education, that the example may be imitated by other States. It 
has received unqualified praise from all the Journals, and from all 
the teachers who have examined it, 

Lectures to Female Teachers on School Keeping. By 
Samuel R. Hall, author of Lectures on School Keeping. 
Extract from the Preface. 

* The author has aimed to render all the directions practical, 
and make the volume a general directory for properly discharg- 
ing the responsible duties involved in the office of the Primary 
Teacher. The work is designed, not merely to be read, but to be 
studied; it may also be made a daily manual, during the time de- 
voted to teaching. 

INFANT SCHOOL MANUAL, or Teacher's Assistant; 
Containing a view of the system of Infant Schools. Also, a vari- 
ety of useful lessons, for the use of teachers. — By Mrs. Howland. 
New edition enlarged. 

The rapidity with which the two first editions were sold, is evi- 
dence of the want of such a work as this. This edition has been 
improved and enlarged, and will be found a valuable assistant to 
u 'I' " ar d in, or are desirous of qualifying themselves 

for teaching Infant Schools. It will also be useful to every teach- 
er of young children in common schools or families. 



WAITT AND DOWS PRESS , B O S T O N . 



DEDICATION. 



To MADAME LOUISE S. W. BELLOC, 

AND 

MADAMOISELLE ADELAIDE DE MONTGOLFIER. 

To you, sisters in affection, and united in your ef- 
forts to promote human virtue and improvement, asso- 
ciated with the friend and benefactor of America the 
good Lafayette, in the important care of selecting a na- 
tional library for your beloved country, the following 
pages are respectfully and affectionately inscribed by 
one, who is proud to have been acknowledged by you as 
a friend and an associate in the cause of education. For 
this distinguished honor, as well as the affection mani- 
fested by you for my beloved sister, during her residence 
in France, permit me thus publicly to express my grati- 
tude. May the friendship which in so interesting a 
manner has been commenced between us be elevated and 
permanent in its nature, as the objects which have giv- 
en rise to it are noble and imperishable. 

Almira H. Lincoln Phelps. 

Mont Cervus, Guilford, Vermont, 



PREFACE. 



The following Saturday Lectures were delivered to the 
pupils of Troy Female Seminary, while the Author pre- 
sided over that Institution, during the visit of the Princi- 
pal in Europe, in 1830 and 1831. Although in being re- 
vised for the press, they have received alterations and ad- 
ditions, they are now offered to the public substantially 
the same, as to the plan and execution, as they were 
originally delivered. 

This volume, which comprises the first series of a 
course of Lectures on Female Education, is principally 
devoted to subjects connected with Intellectual Improve- 
ment. It is the author's intention to prepare the re- 
maining series for publication within the ensuing year. 

The second series will, in part, be devoted to the con- 
sideration of those Affections of the Mind called Emotions, 
comprehending our Moral and Religious Feelings, the 
Duties of Woman in domestic life, as a teacher of youth, 
in society, and towards her Maker. 

It was at first designed that the whole series should be 
comprised in one volume ; but the subjects which present- 
ed themselves were too numerous and important to be 
compressed within the small compass at first intended, 
and there seemed also to be a natural division between 
the subjects which constituted the whole course. 

Although Intellectual Improvement is not in reality to 

be separated from Moral Cultivation, since .both should 

proceed together, it is more convenient to treat of them 

separately. Thus we may give the distinct history of 
1# 



PREFACE. 



some one kingdom, without carrying on that of another 
with which it is intimately connected, any farther than 
may be necessary in the furtherance of our principal 
design ; but when we have traced the history of the one, 
we may then commence that of the other. 

The object of these Lectures was to awaken in the 
minds of the pupils, habits of thought with respect to the 
nature and design of education, and the practical appli- 
cation which ought to be made of its various branches. 
The young ladies to whom they were addressed were 
pursuing studies of different kinds ; and it was important 
that they should know the ' why and the wherefore,' with 
the broad and general principles of literature and 
science. Their teachers in the individual classes would 
no doubt endeavor to point out these ; but every teacher 
is well aware that by long dwelling upon a particular 
department of education, he becomes minute, and that 
there is always danger that the general scope of a 
science may be lost sight of, in the microscopic views 
which he is obliged to take. Many a pupil who has 
studied each page of a text book with close attention, has 
been found unable to give an explanation of the outlines 
and general character of the work, or the science on 
which it treated. 

It was intended in these Lectures to exhibit the na- 
ture and objects of female education, with outlines of the 
various sciences connected with it : in nearly all of these 
the author had at different periods personally instructed, 
and her views of them were the result of her own 
experience and observation. 

In appearing again before the public as an author, 
I feel a degree of timidity unknown on former occasions. 
In my first work, ' Familiar Lectures on Botany,' my steps 
were supported by guides who, if not infallible, were de- 



PREFACE. 7 

serving"of veneration and confidence. If I wandered from 
the path of true science, it was with Linnaeus, with Jus- 
sieu and Mirbel. If, leaving these guides for a time to con- 
verse familiarly with the fair young beings, of whom the 
flowers of summer are no unapt emblems, — if, pausing to 
discourse with them of the goodness of that Great Bene- 
factor whose blessings are so profusely shed around our 
pathway, or to suggest from the consideration of the 
works of nature and the bounties of Providence, reflec- 
tions touching our own moral and religious obligations, — 
still my venerable instructers were patiently bearing with 
my garrulity, and ever ready to help me forward in my 
attempt to unfold the beautiful system which arranges the 
objects of an important part of the kingdom of nature. 

In my Dictionary of Chemistry, a work of more 
severe labor, and less cheered with the glowing hues 
with which imagination invests the subjects of botanical 
research, I was secure from apprehension, by the respon- 
sibilities of the authors whom I translated, and the ap- 
probation and encouragement of two friends of science 
who kindly encouraged me in my labors, and gave them 
the sanction of their names.* Under such auspices, I 
had little reason to fear that even the parts of that work 
in which I ventured at originality would meet with 
severe criticism. The call for three large editions of 
the Lectures on Botany within two years, with the 
adoption of my Dictionary of Chemistry into academies, 
colleges, and medical schools, have encouraged me to 
offer these Lectures to the public. 

But notwithstanding so many unexpected encourage- 
ments, it is with hesitation that I now unveil to public 
observation those scenes ever to be remembered, when 

* Professors Silliman and Eaton. 



8 PREFACE. 

surrounded by a numerous assembly of young females,* 
among whom were my own daughters, and many little 
less dear to me, I endeavored to impress upon youthful 
intellects the truths of science, and upon yet unsophisti- 
cated hearts the love of virtue and sentiments of reli- 
gion. Although the partial affection of these dear pupils 
led them to believe that these instructions might be 
useful to others, strangers may judge differently ; they 
may view with the cold eye of criticism, attempts to do 
good which were prompted by a warm heart and 
zeal to elevate the female character and discharge a 
sacred obligation. 

Those, who with me, feel deeply on the subject of 
human improvement, and who may perceive errors of 
judgment, or faults of execution in the following pages, 
will, I trust, be willing to communicate with me as friend 
with friend ; and such may be assured that any criticism 
or counsel thus offered, will be gratefully received and 
acknowledged. 

It has been suggested by teachers of experience, that 
these Lectures would prove valuable assistants in educa- 
tion, by affording a kind of Synopsis for weekly reviewing 
lessons in the various departments of study, as well as 
a suitable reading book for young ladies' schools. f It 
was indeed partly in the anticipation of such an object 
that the lectures were originally committed to writing, as 
the author was little confined to notes, but often pursued 
the train of thought which was suggested at the mo* 
ment. 

Amongst the numerous works on education which are 

* The number of pupils was nearly two hundred. 

t Among the number of those who have expressed this opin- 
ion, I have pleasure in naming Miss Beecher, the respected Prin- 
cipal of the Hartford Female Seminary, to whom the plan of this 
work was early communicated. 



PREFACE. 9 

now before the public, the author knows of none similar 
in plan to this. Abridgements and compilations differ 
much from compounds, which, though formed of pre- 
viously existing elements, come fresh from the crucible 
of mind, bearing upon them the author's 'own image 
and superscription.' 

The names which appear in the dedication of this 
work may not be extensively known in this country. 
To those not conversant with French literature, the most 
distinguished writers are not generally known until 
time engraves their names upon the records of history. 
In America, the names of the distinguished women of 
England are almost as familiar as if the Atlantic did not 
separate the two countries. The reason of this is obvi- 
ous; we speak and write a common language, and 
thought, meeting with no impediment, is wafted across 
the ocean with a rapidity almost equal to its own opera- 
tions. Thus the name and writings of Maria Edge- 
worth, are known to almost every child of our country, 
while those of Madame Belloc and Madamoiselle de 
Montgolfier, although no less celebrated in Europe, 
are by no means familiar to Americans. These two 
ladies, witha singular devotion of friendship, mutually 
share in fortune, literary labor and fame.* They have 
been connected with M. Jullien, one of the most enlight- 
ened men of the age,f in conducting the Revue Ency- 

* Madame Belloc in a letter to myself, says, ' T ai pour aide une 
autre moi, meilleur, que moi, et plus capable d'accomplir, c'est 
uneamie, une soeur d'adoption, avec laquelle depuis douze ans, 
je suis a moitie de tout ; peines, plaisirs, traveaux, families nous 
avout tout en commune, c'est en son nom autant qu'au mien que 
je vous remercie de votre lettre, et que je reclame un peu de votre 
amitie ; j'aime a pensee qu'avec vous, Madame, nous nous trouve- 
rons comme avec Madame Willard licis d'une longue et anciene 
amitie par de profonds rapporte de pensee et de gout.' 

f For an interesting sketch of this Savant see a late communi- 
cation of Mr. Willis, for the New York Mirror. 



10 PREFACE. 

clopedique, a distinguished Literary Journal of Paris ; they 
take a deep and active interest in many of the schools 
and charitable institutions of France, and the literature of 
their country is enriched by many of their valuable and 
joint productions. 



CONTENTS. 



LECTURE I. Introductory 13 

" II. Different views of young persons re- 

" specting the objects of education. 

" Four classes of pupils: 1st, the gay 

" and fashionable ; 2d, the idle and 

u careless ; 3d, the moral ; 4th, • the 

" pious *. 17 

" III. The nature and objects of education. .25 

" IV. Private and Public Education. — Public 

" Schools.. .-. 33 

" V. Physical Education , 49 

" VI. Division of Mental Faculties. Cultiva- 

" tion of Mental Faculties. Mental 

" Discipline 65 

" VII. Spelling. Articulate Sounds. Read- 

" ing 75 

« VIII. Reading 81 

" IX. Grammar 89 

" X. Ancient Languages 95 



« 



XI. Modern Languages 108 



" XII. Modern ^Geography. Ancient Geog- 

« raphy 116 

" XIII. History 135 

" XIV. Mythology 147 



*• 



12 CONTENTS. 

LECTURE XV. Natural Science. Astronomy. Nat- 
ural Philosophy 161 

" XVI. Chemistry. History of Chemistry 172 

" XVII. Natural History. Zoology. Botany.. 197 

" XVIII. Mineralogy. Geology 213 

" XIX. Mathematics. Arithmetic and Alge- 
bra. Geometry 236 

41 XX. Rhetoric. Criticism. Composition. ..249 

" XXI. Logic. Moral Philosophy. Intellec- 
tual Philosophy 264 

u XXII. Accomplishments. Music: Dancing. 

Drawing 280 

Parting Hymn, sung by the Pupils of 
Troy Female Seminary, at the close 
of Examination, Feb. 16, 1831 307 



LECTURES. 



LECTURE I. 

Introductory. 

My dear Pupils : With feelings of deep anxiety and 
a solemn sense of my own responsibility, I now ad- 
dress you. We have just parted with her, from whom I 
as well as you, have been accustomed to receive advice 
and instruction. Every receding wave is carrying her 
from her native country, and her loved and cherished in- 
stitution. The affectionate and admonitory words which 
she spake at parting are yet fresh in our minds ; and we, 
like the Ephesians when St. Paul tore himself from them, 
sorrow most of all, lest we may see her face no more. 
But let us hope that a life on which so much depends 
may be preserved, and that a mind whose efforts have 
been so greatly blessed for the improvement of her sex, 
may be restored to us with renewed vigor, enriched by 
observations of the state of female education in foreign 
countries, and with increased facilities for usefulness in 
her own. Let us show our love to this dear friend, not 
by vainly regretting her absence, but by remembering her 
words and following her precepts. 

I see by the affectionate beamings of many a youthful 
countenance, that you are ready to give your confidence 
and love to one whom Providence has called to fill a 
station to which her own ambition was far from aspiring. 
To me, my dear girls, the change is great, from the re- 
tirement of domestic life, to find myself within a few short 
years, called to preside over a public institution, number- 
ing nearly two hundred pupils, many of whom are al- 



14 INTRODUCTORY. 

ready distinguished for literary attainments, to be the re- 
sponsible head of so numerous a family, and to find it 
my duty to direct and advise a body of teachers, combin- 
ing experience and learning, with talents of a high order. 

It is with humility, in view of my own deficiences, that 
I speak to you of these responsibilities. I wish you to 
know and feel the cares and anxieties of my situation ; 
and may I not count upon each one of you as a friend, 
ready to give me your encouragement and aid upon all 
occasions when they can be useful. These occasions, my 
dear pupils, will be many : to you I must look for industry, 
to sustain by your improvement the high character of the 
institution. You must aid me in maintaining good order 
and in supporting discipline ; you must, by your obedience 
and attention to the teachers, render their situations 
agreeable ; and finally, by your affectionate and encour- 
aging behaviour, support me in the discharge of my du- 
ties. 

In consenting to take upon myself the charge of this 
institution during the necessary absence of its Principal, 
I have done what was demanded by a sense of moral 
obligation, as well as by sisterly affection ; and in the 
discharge of my duties, 1 must look for guidance and sup- 
port to Him to whom we owe all our intellectual faculties, 
the physical power to execute what the mind dictates, 
and who will not require more of us than he will enable 
us to perform. 

In pursuance with the custom of the late Principal, I 
shall continue to devote a portion of time, on each Satur- 
day, to giving general instruction on subjects connected 
with literature,, morals and religion. In these Lectures 
I shall consider the nature and object of education, the 
various branches of study here pursued with their prac- 
tical application, female manners and accomplishments, 
the peculiar duties of woman in her domestic relations, 
towards society, and towards her Maker. 

It is of vast importance that you should entertain just 
views of the bearing which the ideas you now gain, and 
the habits you now form will have "upon your future des- 
tinies both for time and eternity. As I look around upon 
the young and happy faces before me, and consider the 



INTRODUCTORY. 



15 



changes which a few years will produce, my emotions are 
too powerful for expression. I see in the gay, unreflecting 
o-irl, the future wife, the mother, and the candidate for im- 
mortality, having power not only over her own destiny, 
but capable of wielding vast influence over other immor- 
tal beings. Impressed as these solemn truths are upon 
my mind, I may at times, seem to expect from you too 
much seriousness and reflection, at an age when gaiety 
and thoughtlessness are so natural. 

Far be from me the wish to check the spontaneous 
cheerfulness of your young hearts, to see you sorrow- 
ful and desponding, or to expect in you an unnatural 
precocity of judgment and forethought. The world will 
soon enough change the buoyancy of youthful glee into 
heaviness. Enjoy then this spring time of your existence, 
this morning of your life ; but enjoy with moderation, and 
spare something from the exuberance of your emotions, 
to soften and cheer the sober and pensive season, which, 
should your lives be spared, will as assuredly follow, as 
evening follows morning or as spring is succeeded by 
autumn. Should you see a group of happy children, sport- 
ing near the border of some dreadful precipice, which 
they in their childish glee heeded not, would you think it 
unkind to check them in their mirth, in order to point 
out their danger ? or if one should chance to have stray- 
ed to the verge of the precipice, would you hesitate to 
seize him even somewhat roughly, in order to save him 
from destruction 1 Think it not, then, my dear girls, un- 
kind in those, who by the light of experience see dangers 
to you invisible, if they raise a warning voice, if they 
give a temporary check to your gaiety, in order to avert 
evils which they see impending over you. The eye of 
experience sees before you trials of virtue, affliction, 
pain and death; and < after death comeththe judgment.' 
In view of these solemn and momentous interests, I can- 
not but watch with deep anxiety and solicitude, even 
your slightest actions ; these, though individually of little 
consequence, appear^of vast importance when considered 
as indications of future character. 

All human beings must suffer pain, and sorrow ; but on 
woman do the evils incident to human existence fall with 



16 INTRODUCTORY. 

peculiar severity. Our hearts are sensitive, we are easily 
elated, or depressed ; the delicacy of our nervous system, 
renders us subject to a thousand agitations to which the 
other sex, from greater physical strength and more firmness 
of nerves are exempt. We are subject to caprices, and 
need to be fortified by intellectual discipline, and above 
all, by religious principles to enable us to overcome the 
weaknesses to which our minds, owing to a peculiar phy- 
sical organization are subject. 

How much is the delicate frame of woman called to en- 
dure ! Pain and sickness ; — and, what is more trying to the 
mind than personal suffering, we must experience the an- 
guish of watching over the distresses of others ; of wit- 
nessing death in its triumph over the objects nearest to 
our affections. Yes, you, whose hearts now beat high 
with expectation, who feel that the world is matur- 
ing roses for you to pluck, even you, my daughters, 
are to find thorns springing up before you. You are 
destined to watch over the couch of sick and dying 
friends, parents, brothers and sisters, and perhaps to per- 
form the last sad offices for some of these your compan- 
ions who are now before you glowing with health and 
beauty — some of you will mourn over dying children, some 
will experience the sorrow and desolation of widowhood ; 
and all, sooner or later, will taste of death, the com- 
mon lot of mortals. 

In uttering these predictions, I am not arrogating to 
myself a supernatural foresight ; life, with some slight 
variations, will be to you, as to those who have gone be- 
fore you. The smaller circumstances, the filling up of 
the picture of your lives, time only will exhibit, but the 
outlines are too darkly and plainly marked not to be 
manifest to the eye of experience. Within the last seven 
years, during which time I have been connected with this 
institution, many pupils whom I have addressed from this 
place, and who like you were full of hope and anticipa- 
tion, have gone forth into the world, only to prove its van- 
ity and falsehood. Some have felt ^he bitterness arising 
from the consciousness of having bestowed their young 
affections upon unworthy objects, some have pined in 
secret over a hopeless attachment, while others after hav- 



DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 17 

ing been nattered and worshipped as angels, have been left 
to the heart-rending condition of deserted and neglected 
wives. Some, who to appearance were happily settled in 
life, have been called to leave beautiful and elegant 
homes, the arms of fond affection, with all the charms of 
domestic life, and to lie down in the grave. The most 
devoted love, the most extensive wealth, 

'Could give no more 
Than earth enough to make their narrow bed.' 

Even the young and beautiful, when the seal of death is 
upon her, is given up to corruption, and the worm feeds 
sweetly upon its victim. 

Is there not enough, then, my beloved pupils, in view 
of the various trials, which are incident to woman, and es- 
pecially in view of the final destination of all human beings, 
to bring you to reflection ? And, oh that you may lift 
up your hearts in prayer, and beseech your Heavenly 
Father to fit you for the performance of your duties in life, 
for the patient suffering of your trials, and for the enjoy- 
ment of Heaven. 

i Woman's lot is on you ! silent tears to weep 

And patient smiles to wear through suffering's hour, 

And sumless riches from affections deep 

To pour on broken reeds — a wasted shower ! — 

And to make idols and to find them clay, 

And to bewail that worship ! therefore pray ! — 

Earth will forsake — Oh, happy to have given 

Th' unbroken heart's first frag-rance unto Heaven.' 



LECTURE II. 



Different views of young persons respecting the object 
of education. Four classes of pupils : 1st, the gay 
and fashionable ; 2d, the idle and careless ; 3d, the 
moral; Ath, the pious. 

It is of great importance to you all, that you should 
well understand your own characters, the views which 

2* 



18 DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 

you entertain upon the subject of your present advan- 
tages of education, and the preparations you are making 
for futurity, both as it respects this life and that which is 
to come. And yet, how few young persons do reflect 
deeply upon these things; how often are they careless 
of the seeds which may be taking root in their minds. 
What should we think of a farmer, who was either idle 
in spring, or indifferent whether good seed, or such as 
would bring forth useless, noxious weeds, were sown 
upon his grounds? But what is the product of a farm, 
compared with the fruits of , the human mind? The 
former transient and perishable ; the latter treasured up 
in the great record of human actions, and made the 
criterion by which the destiny of the immortal soul is 
fixed for eternity. 

Let us suppose each one of you, asking herself for 
what purpose am I placed in this institution, and how 
am I improving the advantages here offered me ? After 
searching into your own hearts, let conscience make her 
report ; happy indeed are those who will not stand self- 
accused at that tribunal of moral feeling, which the 
Almighty has established in your own minds for the 
regulation of your conduct. 

The different individuals now before rne, with respect 
to their peculiar views, motives, and characters, may, 
perhaps with propriety be arranged in four classes. Do 
not, my dear girls, think me severe in what I am going 
to say. Like the physician, I must consider the nature 
of your maladies, in order to point out the remedies. 
Were you diseased, without any means of cure ; had 
Providence cursed you with certain moral stains which 
were irrevocably fixed, I " would lay my hand upon my 
mouth,' and utter no words of reproach to a misery so 
hopeless. But blessed be God, a renovating principle is 
ever ready to operate, if human beings will yield them- 
selves to its influences. Conscience, like a faithful 
monitor, is ever warning us of our own danger, and the 
grace of the Holy Spirit is given to guide us in the path 
of virtue and happiness. 

I observed that you might, with respect to your present 
characters, be considered as constituting four distinct 



DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 19 

classes ; they are the following ; 1st, the idle and careless, 
2d, the gay and fashionable ; 3d, the moral; Ath, the pious. 
I shall first consider the idle and careless, those who 
think only of present gratification. This class, I am 
sorry to say, is but too numerous among school-girls. 
Many of you have been nursed in the lap of affluence 
and ease, accustomed from your infancy to all the grat- 
ifications which parental fondness, aided by wealth, could 
bestow; alas! how little does the doating parent reflect 
when tenderly nurturing a beloved child, that he may 
be administering a slow poison, which will infuse itself 
through the whole moral system, and in future years 
render his child imbecile and degraded ! 

Luxury has a most decidedly injurious effect upon 
our moral natures. Do you doubt this? Look into the 
history of nations and of individuals, and you will see 
them almost uniformly corrupted by luxury. The 
Romans were virtuous until enriched by the spoils of 
vanquished nations. Our own ancestors, in the primi- 
tive poverty and simplicity of the early days of our coun- 
try, showed themselves capable of high and noble 
actions ; their descendants enriched by trade, commerce, 
and manufactures, are, it is to be feared, degenerating 
from the lofty character which w r as exemplified in the 
fathers of the revolution, and in their unostentatious 
wives and sisters. And yet wealth does not, necessarily, 
corrupt the mind ; when properly used, it furnishes the 
means of doing good to others ; of assisting to promote 
the noble designs of such, as possess vast benevolence, 
without the pecuniary means of carrying their plans into 
effect. It is by wealth that we can obtain the best means 
for our own improvement, in the purchase of valuable 
books, in visiting interesting works of nature and art, 
in gaining assistance from the talents and information of 
others, and in bestowing leisure for mental cultiva- 
tion. 

But how do the class of pupils, of whom I am speak- 
ing, view the wealth which their parents ' are careful 
shall follow them to this retreat? How do they 
spend the money thus lavished upon them? Besides 
furnishing themselves on all common occasions with 



20 DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 

those eatables which are so injurious to health and 
consequently to mental energy, we see some descend- 
ing even to bribe domestics to purchase dainties, at 
times and in a 'manner forbidden by the rules of the 
institution? How are holidays spent by such a pupil ? 
in writing letters to gladden the hearts of absent 
friends, in looking into the state of her wardrobe, and 
repairing such articles of dress, as may need it ; in 
putting her room in order, in paying and receiving the 
visits of an interesting and intelligent friend, in the 
perusal of instructive books, or in anticipating some of 
the coming school exercises in order to be prompt in all 
her duties ? Would that I might believe that thus all of 
you did spend the hours which are at your own disposal : 
but however unpleasant the thought, it cannot be disguised 
that such seasons are very differently passed by the idle 
and careless. 

Should we enter the room of such a pupil on a 
Wednesday or Saturday afternoon,* we should probably 
see her sitting by a basket of nuts, fruit, or confection- 
ary, her dress slatternly, her hair disordered, and the 
appearance of the room in perfect harmony with that of 
its mistress. Dismissing this disgusting picture, let us 
consider the effect of such sensual indulgence. Our 
young miss awakes in the morning with a head-ache, she 
goes to the breakfast-table with a loathing for simple 
and wholesome food ; when the bell rings for study, she 
sits down with a listless and vacant mind, opens a 
book, looks upon the page, and perhaps reads the words, 
but if she attempts to investigate a subject which 
requires any effort of mind, she feels herself inadequate 
to the task ; at length she appears before her teacher 
with the degraded sense of her own mental inferiority, 
and stammers out an excuse about the head-ache, want 
of time, &,c. We might follow the same pupil to the 
public examination, and see her exposing her ignorance 
to the chagrin of her friends, the mortification of her 
teacher, and her own confusipn. I have already dwelt 

* At these periods the regular exercises of the institution are 
suspended. 



DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 21 

longer upon this character than I intended ; much more 
might with truth be said, to heighten its deformity, but 
I gladly turn from it. I am not willing to admit, even 
to myself that any one of you have sat for the picture so 
far delineated : but if any can see in it her own like- 
ness, let me hope that she may be induced to throw 
aside these habits so injurious to mental improvement, 
and attempt to render herself worthy of a dignified and 
honorable station in society. At the tender moment of 
parting with a daughter, to leave her among strang- 
ers, a father is very apt, as a last act. of kindness, to 
bestow a liberal amount of pocket-money ; and the 
mother and sisters often feel themselves bound to show 
their affection by enclosing money in letters.* 

The next class of pupils which we are to consider 
includes the gay and fashionable ; those whose highest 
object in the attainment of an education is to enable 
themselves to show off in circles of fashion, to seem to be 
amiable and learned, instead of being so. We often see 
such exhibiting, in the pursuit of certain branches of 
education, a becoming diligence : they are faithful to 
their lessons in music, dancing, drawing; and, stimulat- 
ed by the wish of making a figure at examinations, they 
are sometimes found among the best scholars in literary 
branches. In attendance upon a bible class or public 
worship, such pupils are generally remiss, and in the 
performance of moral duties, we often see a great defi- 
ciency. They are usually wanting in meekness and 
lowliness of mind ; if a school-mate is unfashionable 
in her dress, or rustic in her manners, she is con- 
demned to neglect and contempt ; or if a teacher, occu- 
pied with higher objects than personal decoration, ap- 
pears dressed in a manner not correspondent with the 
latest fashions, too often do this class of pupils show 
what is their standard of merit by pertness and disre- 
spect. We shall consider hereafter the tendency of an 
undue regard to fashion and fashionable accomplish- 
ments. In the mean time, may those who are' conscious 
of erring in this respect, think seriously upon the subject, 

* It is to be hoped that the exposition of the injury caused by 
these supplies may deter some from such ill-judged kindness. 



22 DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 

and strive to gain more just and elevated views of the 
concerns and objects of this probationary state. 

But there are a third class of pupils who have a higher 
standard of merit than fashion and who are above the gross 
enjoyments, the listless ennui which marks a certain class 
of school-girls. There are those, who, early imbued with 
virtuous principles, and a regard to moral obligations, 
would grieve to be found wanting in any duty towards 
their parents, their teachers, or their companions. Such 
pupils are exemplary in their deportment and obedient to 
rules; they endeavor to make the most of the advantages 
bestowed upon them ; and like the young man, who, af- 
ter enumerating his many virtues, asked our Saviour, 
' what lack I yet?' such may complacently suppose they 
are doing all that can be required of them ; and yet, one 
thing they lack ; ' He builds too low who builds beneath 
the skies.' There is a higher and a holier motive than 
even duty to a parent or a friend, or benevolence to our 
fellow-creatures ; piety operating upon the heart is the vi- 
tal principle which gives life to all its virtues. 

The fourth and last class of pupils are those, who, in- 
fluenced by the hopes of the gospel, act not with refer- 
ence to this world only, but to eternity. I am aware that 
between the two latter classes of pupils it is often difficult 
to discriminate ; and far be it from me to sit in judgment 
upon the motives of any — to say of any individual pupil, 
she is merely a moralist, and of another, she is pious. 
God, who knows the secret motives of all, seeth those 
who serve him in sincerity and singleness of heart. 
'Not every one that saith Lord, Lord, shall enter into 
the kingdom of heaven, but he that doeth the will of 
my Father in heaven.' It is not to those who are loud 
in professions, who forsake their own duties in order to 
watch the conduct of others; it is not to those who vir- 
tually say, ' Stand by, I am holier than thou,' that we look 
as the patterns of christian character. Blessings are pro- 
nounced upon the meek and lowly, the poor in heart, the 
peacemakers, and they who suffer for righteousness' sake. 

The members of this institution who profess to be fol- 
lowers of Christ, ought to be aware of their high respon- 
sibilities. Your example may invite others to seek that 



DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 23 

religion which they see producing in you, good fruits ; or 
it may disgust them, if accompanied with forbidding and 
unpleasant manners. To each of you, the question should 
often arise ; What should be my walk and conversation 
under my present circumstances? how may I, while here, 
adorn the religion I profess ? Surrounded as you are by 
gay, and often thoughtless companions, by those who can- 
not appreciate your motives of action, it may seem to you 
a subject of doubt, whether you should not wholly, with- 
draw yourselves from society, rather than incur the haz- 
ard of lowering your own standard of duty, or of losing 
your own seriousness amid surrounding levity. 

The scriptures command christians to come out 
from the world, to separate themselves from it. Yet 
our Saviour himself familiarly associated with publi- 
cans and sinners— he went to their entertainments and 
conversed with them in public places. At Cana of Gali- 
lee we find him attending a wedding, and promoting the 
festivities of the occasion, by miraculously changing wa- 
ter into wine. The Pharisees indeed reproach him for 
these things ; they follow him in his hours of social inter- 
course, and point the finger of scorn, because he associ- 
ates with sinners 1 Yet the meek and humble Jesus 
is not deterred from his purpose We see him seated, not 
among a few, who already esteemed themselves righteous, 
but with the multitude , we hear him in mild and gentle 
accents telling them to knock and the door of mercy shall 
be opened, to ask and they shall receive, to repent and 
they shall be forgiven, to go in peace and sin no more. 
His kind and attractive manner first drew the heart to- 
wards him, and then to the doctrine which he taught. 

We are not then to suppose that our Saviour intended 
his followers should separate themselves from the world 
by ceasing to hold intercourse with it ; we cannot be- 
lieve that the Christian, as some zealots teach, is in the 
performance of his highest duty, by withdrawing from 
the world and burying himself in a cloister, in order to 
give his heart wholly to God and the services of religion. 

How, then, you may ask, are we to separate ourselves 
from the world 1 We answer, by piety, meekness, and 
readiness to do good to others, and in all things to adorn 



24 DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 

your profession ; it is thus that you should distinguish or 
separate yourselves, being 'while in, above the world.' 
You need not fear to follow the example of your Saviour, 
who mixed with the multitude, that he might do them 
good ; and although you have not the power, miraculous- 
ly to cure diseases, you may do much towards healing 
the moral diseases of your thoughtless companions, by 
seeking occasions to give them good counsel, and proving 
by your own conduct that ' the ways of wisdom are 
pleasant, and all her paths peace.' 

This institution has at all times numbered among its mem- 
bersmany who professed to enjoy the hopes and promises of 
religion. These have exerted a vast and salutary influence 
upon other pupils ; yet had they always considered their 
obligations to let their ' light so shine, that others, seeing 
their good works, might glorify their Father in heaven,' 
their influence might still more extensively have been felt. 
Some have yielded too much to the example of the mere- 
ly fashionable, the gay and the trifling, and instead of 
firmly standing upon the ground of christian duty, and 
refusing to countenance any thing contrary to christian 
obligation, they have seemed almost fearful of being re- 
cognized as professors of religion, and with the disciple 
who denied his Lord, to say by their practice, ' We know 
not the man.' 

In some cases, pious and conscientious pupils, disgust- 
ed with the levity and frivolity of many of their fellow stu- 
dents, have coldly withdrawn from any intercourse with 
them, and in consequence have gained the reputation of 
being morose and unamiable. A feeling of mutual jeal- 
ousy and dislike has thus taken the place of that confi- 
dence and affection which ought to prevail among mem- 
bers of the same institution. 

You will at once see the evils which must result from 
such a state of things ; and permit me to hope that the 
pious members ofthe institution, will unite with me in en- 
deavoring to lead the thoughtless to reflection, and to ele- 
vate the tone of moral and religious feeling among us. 
And that you may be enabled to be useful, strive to make 
yourselves agreeable ; join in innocent recreations, and do 
not despise external graces, or a suitable attention to 



NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 25 

dress and accomplishments. Be mild and courteous, 
dignified and exemplary, and you will command an in- 
fluence, which neither wealth nor fashion can gain; an influ- 
ence over the hearts of those around you, and thus have 
it in your power to arouse the careless and idle to a 
sense of duty, to enforce upon the gay and thoughtless 
higher and better motives, and to convince those who 
depend merely on a cold morality, that human virtue is but 
a shadow when unaccompanied by religious affections. 

St. Paul, like his divine master became ' all things to 
all men, that he might by all means save some.' ' Never,' 
says an English writer,* ' was man more deeply versed 
than he, in the knowledge of the ways which lead to the 
human heart ; and never was man more disposed by prin- 
ciple and by feeling to apply that knowledge to the be- 
nevolent purpose of opening the heart to the influence 
of the truth which saves and sanctifies. Who would at- 
tempt to portray the character of Paul (or who would re- 
cognize the likeness if attempted) without the kindness, 
the gentleness, the suavity and sympathy which he him- 
self copied from the model of absolute perfection.' May 
you my dear christian pupils, in these respects, imitate 
St. Paul, even as he imitated Christ. 



LECTURE III. 

Education, its Nature and Object. 

The true end of education, is to prepare the young for 
the active duties of life, and to enable them to fill with 
propriety those stations to which, by Providence, they 
maybe called. This includes also a preparation for eter- 
nity ; for we cannot live well, even in this world without 
those dispositions of heart which are necessary to fit us for 
heaven. To discharge aright the duties of life, requires 
not only that the intellect shall be enlightened, but that the 
heart shall be purified. A mother does not perform her 

* Rev. H. F. Burder. 



26 NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 

whole duty, even when in addition to providing for the 
wants of her children, and improving their understanding, 
she sets before them an example of justice and benevo- 
lence, of moderation in her own desires, and a command 
over her own passions : this may be all that is required of 
a heathen mother ; but the christian female must go with 
her little ones to Jesus of Nazareth, to seek his blessing; 
she must strive to elevate the minds of her offspring by 
frequent reference to a future state ; she must teach them 
to hold the world and its pursuits in subserviency to more 
important interests, and to prize above all things that 
peace, which as the world giveth not, neither can it take 
away. 

Thus comprehensive, my dear girls, is education ; 
it consists in training the body to healthful exercises, and 
elegant accomplishments, in cultivating and developing 
the mental powers, in regulating the passions, and above 
all informing religious habits. * 

Many appear to think that the whole business 
of a teacher is, to impart instruction in the different 
branches of learning. This is far from being the 
most anxious concern of one who realizes the impor- 
tance of early discipline of the passions, and of early 
associations upon the moral character. Instruction, or 
the communication of literary and scientific knowledge, 
is indeed, but a small part of education ; for a person may 
be learned and yet have been very badly educated. The 
great thing is to send forth the young fitted for the 
various exigencies of life, and did we know what would 
be the future situation of each one of you, we might 
proceed somewhat differently in our efforts for your 
improvement, but it is uncertain, which of your attain- 
ments in literature, and science, or which of your 
personal accomplishments will be most useful to you 

* M. Jullien, in his ' Essai General d' Education,' says, Educa- 
tion is an apprenticeship for life ; its true end like that of exist- 
ence is well-being or happiness. But although all men either by- 
reflection or instinct seek this end, although all desire to be happy, 
most are ignorant of what happiness really consists in, what are 
the elements which compose it, and the means of obtaining it. Rea- 
son, observation and experience appear to point out three essen- 
tial and necessary elements of happiness — health of body, eleva- 
tion of soul and cultivation of intellect. 



NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 27 

hereafter ; whether they are to be exercised only for the 
improvement and delight of the social circle, or to be 
the means of gaining your own support and that of 
others, who may be dependent upon you. 

How many females, who, in youth had cherished the 
expectation of filling a splendid station in life, have been 
reduced to the necessity of exerting their talents in order 
to gain a subsistence. You. are all, probably, acquainted 
with such ; you may perhaps have heard some of them 
say, that those trials, by throwing them upon their 
own resources, had developed the latent powers of 
their minds, and by divesting them of external ad- 
vantages, had rendered them more intrinsically valua- 
ble, "rhose of you, who now enjoy the light of pros- 
perity, may have no fear that your situations will 
ever change ; you may not conceive the possibility of 
suffering those reverses, which you have witnessed in 
others. ° But, riches are proverbially fleeting; a storm at 
sea may destroy the freighted vessel on which your parents 
depend for wealth ; fire may consume their property ; 
the failures of others may involve them ; the channels of 
trade may be diverted; manufacturing interests may 
decline, or landed estates may sink in value; — upon 
these, and a thousand other chances, does the uncertain 
tenure of worldly wealth depend. 

Some of you may expect distinction on account of 
friends high in official stations, but long before you are 
prepared to take an active part in life, they may have 
sunk into obscurity. In this country, of all others, the 
distinction which arises from public offices is the most 
transient and uncertain. We see a man holding the 
highest offices in the government ; and his family court- 
ed and flattered on account of the power and influence 
which this gives him. We look again, and this same indi- 
vidual, by a change of public sentiment, or some new move- 
ment of the political machine, is deprived of his honors, 
his family are neglected and forgotten, while their pre- 
tended friends are bustling onwards to pay their court 
to the rising fortunes of another, who becomes for his 
short hour ' lord of the ascendant.' 

How important, then, that all of you should provide 
yourselves with resources against a day of change ! 



28 NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 

These resources you are now in a situation to secure, in 
the attainment of that knowledge and those accomplish- 
ments, which the present wealth of your parents place 
within your reach. The above suggestions should also 
induce those who possess present advantages, to treat 
with attention such as are less favored by fortune, but 
who deserve respect for their morals and talents, and 
who may be destined to future eminence. 

There are among those who now listen to me, some 
who have early tasted affliction ; some to whom ad- 
versity is familiar ; these, perhaps, have been accus- 
tomed to regard themselves as destined to glide through 
life in obscurity, unnoticed and unknown. But the 
tempest may have bowed you to the earth only that 
you may arise strengthened and invigorated. You 
have seen a slender plant drooping its head and 
lying low beneath the blast ; but the storm passed, and 
the plant raised itself up, exhibiting new verdure and 
strength. Even so it may be with you ; the clouds 
which darken your young days may clear away, and a 
brighter sky reveal to you paths of usefulness and 
honor. In your future prosperity, you may be able 
to assist by your bounty, and honor by your notice 
some of those who now pass by you with neglect. 
Take courage, then, and remember that to a certain 
iegree, especially in our own country, every one is, in a 
degree, the ' artificer of his own fortune. 5 

Can we find no cause why the children of the rich, 
setting out in life under the most favorable circum- 
stances, often sink into insignificance, while their more 
humble competitors, struggling against obstacles, rise, 
higher and higher, till they become elevated in propor- 
tion to their former depression ? Thus you may have 
seen a tree wither from excess of nourishment and care, 
while the mountain pine, neglected and exposed to 
fierce winds and raging tempests, took strong root, and 
grew into a lofty tree, delighting the eye by its strength 
and beauty. If we look to our state legislatures, our 
national congress, and the highest executive and judicial 
offices in the country, we do not find these places 
chiefly occupied by those who were born to wealth, or 
only taught the pride of aristocratic distinctions. Most 



NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 29 

of the great men of our country have made their own 
fortunes ; most of them began life, knowing that they 
could hope for no aid or patronage, but must rely solely 
upon the energies of their own minds and the blessing 
of God. 

Ask the officers of colleges, which of their students are 
most distinguished for morality and talents — they will not 
answer that these are usually the sons of the rich and the 
great, those who feel that they already possess sufficient 
recommendations to the favor of the world ; — no, we shall 
be told that the highest places are generally filled by such 
students as are struggling against difficulties, in the 
acquisition of that intellectual wealth which they prize 
above all earthly blessings, and by means of which they 
hope to render themselves respected and useful. Similar 
facts may be witnessed in female institutions : we need 
not look beyond our own walls to see instances of minds 
debased and enervated, by the consciousness of wealth, 
and the idea that this alone can procure honor and re- 
spect. But can you feel esteem for a fellow pupil, who, 
spending her time in idleness, exhibits in her con- 
versation and school exercises a vacant intellect ? And 
when such an one shall go out into the world, and meet 
with intelligent men and women, will her money compen- 
sate for her want of knowledge ? True her society may 
be courted by the mercenary ; but she cannot avoid per- 
ceiving the motives which influence them. Could we, 
my dear pupils, read the hearts of many who live in 
splendor, we should see them writhing under the morti- 
fying consciousness of their own real insignificance. 

Some of you may be ready to exclaim, is wealth then 
a curse, and are we to esteem ourselves less fortunate, 
than if we were poor and depressed 1 Far be it from me 
to teach you to be ungrateful for the blessings bestowed 
by Providence — as blessings should you consider wealth 
and honorable connexions ; — but remember too, that su- 
perior privileges lay upon you greater responsibilities. I 
am happy to say that, in this institution, many of its most 
exemplary and intellectual pupils have been young ladies 
of high expectations ; and when we find wealth little 
prized for its own sake, valued chiefly for the opportunities 
3* 



30 NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 

it affords of acquiring knowledge, and rendering its pos- 
sessor useful, we feel that the character which exhibits 
this elevation is truly deserving of our regard. 

You perceive how wide and extended a field is that of 
education, involving, as it does, your temporal and eternal 
interests. * Get wisdom,' says the wise king of Israel, 
' and with all thy getting, get understanding. When 
wisdom entereth into the heart, and knowledge is pleasant 
unto thy soul, discretion shall preserve thee, understand- 
ing shall keep thee. They will hear and increase in 
learning, and they that have understanding shall attain 
unto wise counsels. The knowledge of wisdom shall be 
sweet unto thy soul ; and when thou hast found it, there 
shall be ^.reward, and thy expectation shall not be cut off.' 
The knowledge which you are to gain is as various as are 
the works of God, and the laws of which govern these 
works. The wisdom of which the sacred writer speaks, 
implies something more than the knowledge of human 
sciences ; — the control and right direction of our passions, 
the knowledge of our own hearts, and above all, the 
knowledge of God, constitute true wisdom. 

While you are making acquisitions in the various branch- 
es of study, or gaining knowledge, do not neglect to 
seek that wisdom, without which knowledge is worse than 
useless. Talents and learning without wisdom are like 
fire or instruments of death in the hand of a madman ; 
desolation and destruction to all that is good and truly 
valuable in morals and religion mark the footsteps of minds 
thus balanced. They are the moral Siroccos which, with 
blighting influence, occasionally sweep over the intellect- 
ual world. How sickening to our moral nature, to behold 
one of the noblest works of the Creator, a human mind, 
employing its high powers in cursing its fellow beings by 
leading them insidiously from the paths of virtue ! or 
with the boldness of the fallen angels, openly daring the 
Almighty by trampling on his laws, and calling on others 
to follow its impious career ! Such has been the course of 
some whose infectious writings come to us, stamped with 
the seal of fashion. Talents have been too blindly wor- 
shipped, and the fearful tendency of some works of ge- 
nius has been too often unseen, amid the splendid corus- 
cations of intellect which have accompanied them. But 



NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 31 

the lightning is not less dreadful for its brilliancy, nor the 
Kalmia less poisonous for the splendid beauty of its color- 
ing. To be badly great, is to be cursed indeed. It is in- 
deed commendable to desire to be great, but we should 
desire to be greatly good. It is true, all cannot be great, 
but every human being can be good. 

Our object in the following Lectures, will be to consider 
how you may best attain those qualifications which will fit 
you for the duties of life, and for enjoying happiness here- 
after. You who listen to me are all gifted by the Great 
Creator of mankind with rational and immortal minds. But 
a few years ago, you were thoughtless, and gay children. 
You do not remember when you first began to think; 
that period is involved in as much mystery as the dark- 
ness of the grave. The dawning of the human intellect, 
like that of the natural day is gradual and undefined. 
Memory, straying in the twilight of childhood, impercep- 
tibly finds herself lost in the darkness of infancy. That 
children think much, and admire the bright and beauti- 
ful objects around them, long before they can by words 
express the operations of their minds, is plainly mani- 
fested : we have no reason however to believe that infants 
are moral agents. It is when the child begins to in- 
quire, ■ What am 1 1 who made me ? and for what purpose 
am I created V that he becomes an accountable being. 

The child looks upwards ; he beholds the glorious sun 
and moon, the brilliant canopy of heaven glittering with 
its spangled myriads, he looks upon the earth, and sees 
the majestic mountain, the expanse of waters, he beholds 
the sweet flowers, which seem to speak to his heart by 
their fragrance, no less than to delight his eyes by their 
beautiful and delicate coloring; he contemplates the tow- 
ering oak and the verdant carpet beneath his feet, he 
listens, and his ear brings to his soul the rush of waters, 
the dashing of the ocean, the murmur of the rivulet, and 
the gentle sighing of the breeze. The animal creation 
fills his heart with joy, the singing of birds, the meekness 
of some domestic animals, and the swiftness and beauty 
of others, all strike his observant mind. But with still 
more interest does he view the intelligent beings around 
him 



32 NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 

That lovely and patient one, whose smiles kindled 
the first emotion in his young heart, whose gentle 
bosom had been his pillow in suffering and in joys ; 
the many kind friends who have been wont to administer 
to his wants, all are around him, and he feels that it is 
pleasant to be alive, to experience so much kindness, to 
behold so many grand and beautiful objects, and to en- 
joy within himself the sportive glee of his heart, and the 
bounding elasticity of his young limbs. 

A few more years, and the season of childhood 
is over — the splendid beauties of the intellectual 
world then dawn upon the youth, and his heart beats 
high with new and delightful emotions. But still a few 
more years, and the scene is again changed ; the friends 
of his youth are gone — some have been taken by death, 
and the cold heartlessness of the world has withered the 
affections of others. His own frame has lost its vigor ; 
the silver locks, the dim eye, and the tottering step 
mark the period of old age. Nature herself seems to be 
growing old ; the sun has risen upon many of his troubled 
days, and the moon has witnessed wearisome nights. He 
turns from these things which remind him of his frequent 
disappointments, and sighing, exclaims ' Oh that I had 
wings like a dove, then would I fly away and be at rest.' 
Death which had once appeared so terrible, is now by 
the christian welcomed as the harbinger of peace, as the 
entrance into a new scene of existence, where friends 
will never part nor know distrust, where, sinless and hap- 
py, all the better feelings of the heart will strengthen 
and expand, until man shall become perfect and glori- 
ous, as the angels now are. 

Since this is our destination, to live on earth a few re- 
volving seasons, and then to die and to be renewed in a 
state of never-ending existence, let us, while preparing for 
life, keep in view the great end for which life is given, 
and endeavor ' so to pass through things temporal, that 
we lose not the things eternal.' 



PRIVATE AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. 33 

LECTURE IV. 

Private and Public Education. — Public Schools. 

Much has been said and written on the most proper 
mode of conducting female education ; — some have con- 
tended that girls should be brought up under the watch- 
ful eye of maternal care ; while others have considered 
the emulation which springs up where there is rivalship, 
to be important, if not necessary, to the full development 
of the mental powers. Whether a young lady remains 
with her mother during the period allotted for her educa- 
tion, or whether she goes abroad, the character of the 
latter will depend much upon that of the former. The 
daughter's ideas of dress, of expense, of what qualities 
are to be most respected and valued in others, and her 
religious impressions, all will, in some degree have taken, 
their color from this earliest guide. 

It would seem that of all others, a mother was the 
most proper person to superintend the education of a 
young female. The maternal watch is vigilant and ac- 
tive : none else can feel the deep and anxious solicitude 
which marks a mother's care ; and yet this very anxiety, 
by becoming too intense, may be injurious to the child. 
The quick imagination of the parent seizes upon the most 
trifling indications of future character, and she is alter- 
nately agonized with fear or delighted with hope. These 
strong emotions are not favorable to a steady and even 
course of education ; for as one or the other feeling pre- 
vails, there is danger of trifling actions becoming the 
subjects of inadequate blame or praise. 

It would seem as if in the shade of domestic life, and 
under the care of a wise mother, a young female would 
blossom into maturity, lovely and intelligent and fitted 
for the discharge of the various duties, which may here- 
after devolve upon her. This idea has been a favorite 
one with the poet and novelist, who have delighted in 
painting their heroines as combining all the simplicity of 
infancy itself, with the most court-like and elegant man- 
ners : as entirely ignorant of the world, and yet know- 



34 PRIVATE AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. 

ing all of it that is valuable ; as amiable and docile, 
without ever having suffered restraint ; as generous and 
disinterested, and yet knowing only to be indulged and 
caressed. Now this is all absurd ; reasoning a priori, 
we should say that to know the world, one must have in- 
tercourse with it, and facts show that a young girl 
always kept at home, is awkward and constrained in 
her manners, often selfish and unamiable in her dispo- 
sition, and ignorant of the customs of society. Her 
mother may have moved in the most refined circles, be 
intimately acquainted with the forms and customs of po- 
lite intercourse ; she may have been faithful in imparting 
this knowledge, but mere rules in this case are of as 
little use, as it would be for a pupil to study the theory 
of drawing and music, without practice. Selfishness, 
pride and conceit are also fostered in the mind of one 
accustomed to feel herself the great centre of attraction, 
and to consider every one around her as subservient to 
her pleasure. 

With respect to literary improvement, it may be 
thought that the quiet of domestic life is peculiarly favor- 
able. We will suppose the mother herself to be entire- 
ly competent to instruct in all necessary branches of fe- 
male education. Is it certain that she will have the re- 
quisite time for superintending her daughter's education, 
and conducting it on those systematic principles which 
will ensure a suitable attention to each department of 
knowledge 1 The mother, however competent she may 
be to the task, however anxious to devote herself to her 
daughter's improvement, has many other claims upon her 
than those of maternal duty. As a wife she must share 
in the cares and anxieties of her husband ; — as the mis- 
tress of a family she must direct its internal con- 
cerns, and this alone might render it difficult for her to 
give that individual attention to literary subjects, which 
is necessary in an instructer. Society too has its claims; 
and her time is always liable to be taken up with a friend- 
ly visit, a ceremonious call, or an appeal to charity : these 
interruptions break in upon the regularity of the pre- 
scribed systematic division of time, and the pupil feel- 
ing it very uncertain that her lesson will, if learned, be 



PRIVATE AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. 35 

heard, relaxes her diligence and acquires a habit of idle- 
ness and procrastination. We have said nothing of the 
claims that younger children may have upon the mother's 
care, or of various other indispensable duties ; but enough 
has been obesrved to show, how very difficult it must be for 
the most intelligent and energetic woman, charged with 
a variety of cares, to bestow that time and attention upon 
a daughter's education which is necessary for the suc- 
cessful cultivation of the youthful mind. 

I have seen the attempt made by an energetic and 
judicious woman, whose pecuniary circumstances being 
somewhat embarrassed, and who, entertaining no very 
favorable opinion of public schools, resolved to educate 
her daughter. I had known this lady in her youth, and 
seen her the admiration and pride of society ; I did not 
not see her again until her eldest daughter was about 
sixteen. How great was my astonishment, to behold in 
this daughter, an awkward, ignorant girl, with less 
polish of manners and less information than is ordinarily 
possessed by children of ten years of age. All who know 
anything of instructing, are aware of the time and 
patience which is requisite, even for teaching a child its 
letters : add to this, reading, spelling, writing, geogra- 
phy, grammar, arithmetic, and so on, to the higher 
branches of education, and it will not appear strange 
that the lady just mentioned with an extensive circle of 
acquaintance, and several younger children, should 
have failed in her attempt to educate her daughter. 
Seeing at length the impossibility of success answer- 
able to her wishes, she placed her daughter abroad at 
a public school ; but the confirmed irregularity of her 
habits was unfavorable to improvement, and render- 
ed irksome the systematic rules to which she was 
subjected. She felt, too, the need of those indulgences 
which home afforded, and which had greatly tended to 
render her intellect dull and torpid. From these circum- 
stances, rather than any natural inferiority of mind, her 
improvement was not creditable either to herself, or to 
those under whose care she was placed. 

But may not parents provide private teachers for their 
children, and thus keep them under their own observa- 



36 PRIVATE AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. 

tion? Doubtless this is more practicable where the 
expense can be afforded, than for parents themselves to 
give regular instruction. Young persons thus educated 
may, with a faithful instructer, make tolerable proficien- 
cy in literature ; but there is great danger of their 
becoming selfish and haughty, when all around seem to 
live for them. Educated under the paternal roof, they 
can have little idea of a world in which their interests 
will clash with those of others, and where forbearance 
and self-denial will be continually needed. Parents 
may faithfully warn their children of these things ; they 
may tell them that the world will present a scene very 
different from that in which their least complaint 
receives attention, and their slightest unhappiness meets 
with sympathy ; but the habit of being served and 
indulged, becomes so strong, that when in after years the 
scene is reversed, and the petted child is called upon to 
sacrifice her own ease and comfort for that of others, 
she finds the task difficult and discouraging, and either 
shrinks from the performance of known duties, or 
becomes unhappy in the discharge of them. 

We, see then, that however beautiful in theory it may 
be to educate girls at home, it is not easy in practice. 
The mother herself who sets out with the resolution to 
persevere in teaching her child, or in superintending her 
education, will at length feel that there are difficulties 
and evils growing out of her excessive anxiety : she will 
see that by close and constant contact with her child, 
and a habit of minute attention, she is prevented from 
seeing the outline of her character, and forming and 
executing those general rules to which subordinate ones 
should be subservient. 

I have heard mothers who had been in the practice 
of instructing youth, say that they found more difficulty 
in governing and managing one or two of their own 
children, than they had done in controlling and instruct- 
ing a large school. This may be easily accounted for ; 
an instructer has, or ought to have, her mind free from 
other cares than those connected with her profession ; 
if conscientious, she feels a sufficient degree of interest 
in the progress and character of her pupils to induce 



PRIVATE AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. 37 

her to make every possible exertion, but she does not 
suffer that excessive solicitude which often impedes the 
mother's progress. Physicians frequently profess an un- 
willingness to prescribe for their own families, on the 
ground that too great anxiety influences their judg- 
ment ; — in all cases requiring the full exercise of the rea- 
soning powers, it is important that the mind should, as lit- 
tle as possible, be influenced by the emotions. 

Parents are often deceived in the characters of their 
children. We have at this place frequent opportuni- 
ties of witnessing this. Sometimes one who brings to 
the Seminary a bold and conceited girl, (excuse me 
if the terms seem harsh) says, ' My daughter is exces- 
sively diffident, and needs to be brought forward and 
encouraged/ At another time, a child of dull intellect 
is committed to our care as a remarkable genius, who 
is capable of comprehending the most abstruse sciences. 
One who can scarcely raise the eight notes of the ga- 
mut is frequently considered as possessing great talents 
for music ; another has learned to daub paper with water 
colors, and her parents wish that her fine taste in 
drawing may be cultivated, although the poor girl may 
not have sufficient correctness of eye to make a horizon- 
tal or perpendicular line. These mistakes are far from 
being confined to ignorant parents; parental blindness 
often falls upon those, who in other respects are wise and 
enlightened. 

We have, in the preceding remarks, considered 
private education in its most favorable aspect, not taking 
into account the numerous cases in which the mother is 
inadequate to the task of instructing, from her own 
defective education, or from feebleness of constitution. 
Many young females being early deprived of a mother's 
care, the father may be compelled to send his daughters 
abroad for education. It seems, then, that there is a ne- 
cessity for female schools ; and yet, strange as the fact 
may appear, no provision for such an object has ever been 
made, by the guardians of the public welfare. Napo- 
leon indeed established the school of St. Denis, for educa- 
ting the daughters of his legion of honor ; but this was con- 
4 



38 PRIVATE AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. 

ducted on an imperfect plan, and very limited in its ope- 
ration. 

The founder of this institution was early impressed 
with the importance of female education. Her views on 
this subject are expressed in a small volume published 
about the year 1818, and called 'Plan of a Female 
Seminary, by Emma Willard.' The author sketched the 
plan of a Female Seminary, to be founded and endowed 
by public munificence. She urged the claims of the 
daughters of the republic, to share, in some small degree, 
with the sons, in those privileges for mental improvement 
which were so abundantly bestowed upon the latter. 
After pleading the justice of the claim and the expediency 
of granting it, as proved by a variety of important consid- 
erations, she thus remarks of female education in reference 
to national character and glory : — 'Ages have rolled away ; 
barbarians have trodden the weaker sex beneath their feet ; 
tyrants have robbed us the of present light of heaven, 
and fain would take its future. Nations, calling them- 
selves polite, have made us the fancied idols of a 
ridiculous worship, and we have repaid them with ruin 
for their folly. But where is that wise and heroic coun- 
try, which has considered that our rights are" sacred, 
though we cannot defend them ? that, though a weaker, 
we are an essential part of the body politic, whose cor- 
ruption or improvement must affect the whole? and 
which, having thus considered, has sought to give us 
by education, that rank in the scale of being, to which 
our importance entitles us. History shows not that 
country. It shows many, whose legislatures have 
sought to improve their various vegetable productions, 
and their breeds of useful brutes ; but none, whose pub- 
lic councils have made it an object of their deliberations, 
to improve the character of their women. Yet though 
history lifts not her finger to such an one, anticipation 
does. She points to a nation, which, having thrown off 
the shackles of authority and precedent, shrinks not 
from schemes of improvement, because other nations 
have never attempted them ; but which, in its pride of 
independence, would rather lead than follow, in the 
inarch of human improvement ; a nation, wise and 



PRIVATE AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. 39 

magnanimous to plan, enterprising to undertake, and 
rich in resources to execute. 5 

The late Governor Clinton entered warmly into the 
views of Mrs. Willard : he encouraged her to petition the 
legislature of New York, and in a message to that body, 
publicly expressed his own opinions with respect to the 
justice of the- claim. The novelty of the petition caused 
considerable sensation, and gave rise to much discussion, 
both in the House and abroad. The more enlightened 
members seemed, generally, in favor of considering fe- 
males as the legitimate children of the state, and making 
some provision for their intellectual improvement. There 
were those, however, who gravely asserted in the public 
council of the state, that ' learning was of little use to 
women, as it would tend to lead them from their own 
sphere of domestic duties, and thus prove injurious to the 
interests of society.' The bill for an endowment of a 
Female Seminary, after having received a favorable 
report from the committee, to whom it was referred, 
was defeated through the influence of those, who with- 
out attempting to deny the right which was claimed, 
thought it should be waived on the ground of the evils 
which might result, from enlightening the minds of 
those, who were destined to a limited and subordinate 
sphere. 

It is upon a similar mode of reasoning that the slave- 
holding States found their objections to the instruction of 
those degraded beings, who are entailed upon them, a 
curse which they would gladly shake off. As respects 
the slave, this reasoning is undoubtedly correct ; let the 
black population of the south be taught that they in fact 
possess the greater physical power ; let their minds be 
opened to the truths of man's equality by nature, and of 
the unjust tenure by which they are kept in bondage ; 
let them have the means of communicating with each 
other from distant places, thus enabling them to act in con- 
cert ; let all this be done, and the fair regions of the south 
would soon present one universal scene of blood and 
carnage. While we deplore a necessity founded on the 
principle of self-defence, which holds in darkness so 
great a portion of human intellect, we cannot but admit 



40 PRIVATE AND TUBLIC EDUCATION. 

that such a necessity does, in the present state of things, 
exist. 

But let the question come fairly before those who 
object to female improvement on grounds, which if not 
similar, are certainly analogous. Neither the tight 
of holding slaves or keeping them in ignorance is now 
claimed; it is wholly a matter of expediency. The 
rights which the stronger sex possess of keeping the 
weaker in a state of intellectual bondage and darkness 
is no less questionable. Let it then be considered on 
the ground of expediency. What w T ould be the state of 
society, if females were generally taught the laws of the 
material and mental world, the nature of right and 
obligation, their own duties, and their high responsi- 
bilities as moral and intellectual beings 1 Would such 
knowledge be likely to cause them to forsake the path 
of duty, and to seek a sphere of action, which, from 
knowing the constitution of society, and especially the 
nature of their own obligations, they perceive does not 
belong to them 1 There is an absurdity in such suppo- 
sitions ; and if a Mary Wolstoncraft, or a Frances 
Wright, have thrown aside that delicacy which is the 
crowning ornament of the female character, if they have 
urged the rights of their sex to share in public offices and 
in the command of armies; — if they have demanded that 
they shall be permitted to leave the sacred hearth, the 
domestic altar, and all the delights and duties of home, to 
mingle in political commotions or the din of arms, they 
have but expressed the overflowings of their own rest- 
less spirits, their own unnatural and depraved ambition. 
They are not to be considered as the deputed represent- 
atives of our sex; they have thrown off the female 
character, and deserve no longer to be recognized as 
women ; they are monsters, a kind of lusus natures, 
who have amused the world to the great injury of that sex 
whom they have pretended to defend. 

But let us look to such women as Hannah More, Ma- 
ria Edgeworth, Mrs. Hemans ; and, in our own country, 
many others equally distinguished in the walks of litera- 
ture ; — are such disorganizes of society, pedantic, un- 
feminine, neglectful of duty in their various domestic re- 



*»ti6LlC SCHOOLS. 4i 

lations? Are they not generally equally distinguished in 
private life for their amiable and domestic qualities, and 
for a faithful discharge of their relative duties, as in pub- 
lic for their high intellectual powers? 

My dear pupils, may the whole tenor of your own lives 
be a constant refutation of the degrading assertion, that 
* woman must be ignorant in order to be useful.' On 
you the attention of many is fixed, and your future 
conduct, will be hereafter referred to as proving or 
disproving the problem, ' Is it for the good of society 
that women shall receive a liberal and enlarged course 
of education ?' 



LECTURE V. 

Public Schools. 



It may be said, there is no difficulty in finding schools 
enough where young ladies can be placed for their ed- 
ucation. True, there is no want of schools ; but how 
miserably defective are many of them, as respects the 
qualifications of teachers and their facilities for giving 
instruction. 

Some lady of fashion, after a few years spent in gaining 
superficial accomplishments, and a few more in showing 
herself off — by some means, perhaps an unfortunate mar- 
riage, the loss of friends and fortune, finds herself reduced 
to the necessity of gaining her own support. She opens a 
boarding-school, and parents, charmed with the elegant 
manners of one, whose exterior graces have alone been 
cultivated, entrust her with the care of instructing their 
daughters, not only in literature and science, but in mo- 
rality and religion. But what can be expected of one, who 
knows nothing of a regular course of mental discipline, 
and who never felt the obligations of morality or the sanc- 
tions of religion 1 * We need not be surprised to see the 

* Miss Edgeworth relates a story of an elegant and accomplish- 
ed French opera dancer, who applied to a gentleman for a recom- 

4* 



42 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

pupils of such instructors setting a high value upon ex* 
ternal graces, and despising alike an unfashionable scru- 
pulousness of conscience and the real elevation of a cul- 
tivated mind. They are thoroughly instructed in the art 
of seeming to be mild and gentle, and are taught to dis- 
course with seeming knoicledge of things of which they are 
ignorant. The same period of time, under different aus- 
pices would have sufficed to have given them the sub- 
stance instead of the shadow ; to have rendered the gem 
truly valuable, instead of imparting to it a fictitious lustre. 
Who that looks upon such a being with a sense of her 
high responsibilities, but must sigh to behold her devoting 
the few probationary years of life in the mere acquisition 
of personal accomplishments 1 Alas, they reflect not that 
the sweetest voice of music will be silent in the grave, the 
most graceful form that glides through the dance will 
moulder into dust ; while the soul, with its treasures of 
knowledge and piety, will continue to exist through the 
boundless ages of eternity. 

But I forbear to dwell upon a picture from which the 
reflecting mind recoils, that of a young female placed in 
the care of one who would mislead her, with respect to 
what is truly valuable in education, and the necessa- 
ry preparation for future life. I would gladly believe 
such instances of misplaced confidence are rare, and that 
the greater number of those who engage in the business 
of education, are aware of their great responsibility, and 
anxious for the moral character of their pupils, as well as 
their perfection in personal accomplishments, and their 
progress in literary attainments. 

And yet, with all the zeal, talents and virtue, which 

mendatic-n to an English family as a governess. On observing 
that her request appeared to excite some surprise, she said, ' You 
surely do not doubt my capability — do I not speak French with 
the true Parisian accent ? and as for music and dancing, I can cer- 
tainly teach these to any young person.' The gentleman being 
thus pressed, was obliged to say that most mothers would be in- 
quisitive about the moral character of the person to whom they 
entrusted their daughters. It is to be feared that such is the pre- 
vailing admiration for accomplishments in our country, especially 
in some of our cities, that a governess or teacher, possessing the 
qualifications of the opera singer, would find too many parents 
willing to waive the subject of morality. 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 



43 



any female teacher ever possessed, she cannot compen- 
sate her pupils for the want of facilities for improve- 
ment. Upon the former method of conducting schools, 
a single teacher often had the charge of forty or fifty 
pupils, assembled in one apartment, where writing, em- 
broidery, rhetoric, philosophy, painting, arithmetic, che- 
mistry and spelling, were all mingled together, in a cha- 
otic confusion. The teacher, with no kind of appara- 
tus for illustrations, no leisure for investigation, scarcely 
had time to hear a rapid recitation from memory of the 
lessons of each class, and this too while presiding in the 
school, called upon to make pens, to look over sums, to 
correct a drawing, or to point out the proper shades 
for the embroidery of a flower.* This, indeed, is a 
striking contrast with your present advantages. You 
smile at the picture, as if it were drawn to amuse you ; 
but it is taken from reminiscences of my own school days, 
and the painful and vivid recollections of later years, in 
which, by sad experience, I learned to feel the trials of 
presiding over a school thus organized . 

To a mind thirsting for the pure waters of knowledge, 
it is tantalizing in the extreme, to be condemned to see 
the fountain in the far off distance, to taste a few scanty 
drops, and yet never be allowed to gain a nearer access. 
You who are provided with facilities for attaining this 
fountain, should learn duly to appreciate and improve 
them. You can retire to your own rooms for study, 
and at all suitable times, have access to teachers, who, 
devoted to their particular departments of learning 
have the opportunity of preparing themselves for their 
duties. You have recitation rooms, where each particu- 
lar branch of knowledge receives undivided attention. 
In chemistry, mineralogy and botany, the objects of 
investigation are presented to your senses. The very at- 

• 
* There are still many female schools in our country where sim- 
ilar scenes are presented, with the exception, perhaps, of embroid- 
ery, which is now generally laid aside, although other kinds of 
needle- work are often substituted for it. But parents should not be 
so unreasonable as to expect the improvement of their daughters 
under such disadvantages. It is true that they do sometimes learn ; 
but at best, both teachers and pupils must proceed under great dis- 
couragements. 



44 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

mosphere around you is redolent of literature ; not that 
which is exhaled from the muddy waters of abridgements 
and compendiums, but from the copious and unadultera- 
ted fountains of knowledge. 

I trust, my dear pupils, that you are grateful for 
the higher standard of female education which now pre- 
vails, and for your own advantages. These you owe to 
the devoted zeal of your beloved Principal, and to the 
liberality of the city of Troy. The latter has done what 
the legislature of the state refused to do ; it has advanced 
funds for the purchase of the extensive grounds now ap- 
propriated to the use of the Seminary, and for the erec- 
tion of the spacious and commodious building we now 
occupy. 

With all the advantages which you enjoy, you are ex- 
posed to some dangers, from which, under the paternal 
roof, you might be shielded. I mean dangers arising from 
bad example, and the too prevalent influence of a false 
standard of merit. In a public school, where many 
young persons form a collective mass, there are dangers 
arising from their effects upon each other. ' As a lit- 
tle leaven leaveneth the whole lump,' so do pride, vani- 
ty, and disregard to moral and religious principles, spread 
from one and contaminate many. 

Each of you are perhaps ready to exclaim, ' Far be it 
from me to set an example that may injure the charac- 
ters of any of my companions.' — I can readily believe 
that none of you would willingly become an agent of, evil, 
a corrupter of others : none of you would say, ' I consid- 
er fashisonable dress and manners more respectable than 
virtuous principles ;' but are there not some of you who, by 
your actions, lead others to suppose such is your opinion ? 
When a stranger arrives among you, what is the first inqui- 
ry of many ? ' Is she handsome ? how is she dressed ? is 
she rich, fashionable and genteel?' Would it not natu- 
rally be inferred from this, that you considered these the 
most important qualifications? How seldom do you hear 
the questions, ' Is she pious, well informed or amia- 
ble? ' Now there is always danger that young persons 
will acquire false ideas of what is truly estimable : espe- 
cially do their standards of excellence depend much up- 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 45 

on the opinions of those around them. All the good in- 
struction given pupils by their teachers, may be counter- 
acted by accidental associations. If you are told that 
virtue is more to be desired than beauty, and piety than 
elegant accomplishments, and yet you see the virtuous 
and pious neglected by certain young ladies, while ex- 
ternal qualifications seem to give a right to a kind of ex- 
clusiveness and eminence — of how much greater influence 
may be this example than the precept ! 

Philosophers have not erred in considering the pecu- 
liar characters of individuals as greatly modified by acci- 
dental circumstances. The human mind is so constitu- 
ted that what becomes common ceases to make an im- 
pression ; the attention is not aroused by the recurrence 
of what is expected : thus, when you meet in this place, 
it is a thing of course for you to be reminded of your du- 
ty, and to hear moral reflections ; many of you, perhaps, 
compose yourselves into a kind of lethargy, taking for 
granted that good things will be said, and that they will 
undoubtedly tend to your benefit, although you may nei- 
ther listen to the counsel, or practise it. So in your recita- 
tion rooms, you expect explanations of grammar, rhet- 
oric, mathematics, &c; and your attention fails of being 
arrested. Let but the same moral remarks or illustrations, 
the same explanations be heard by you in some unexpect- 
ed time or place, and your minds spontaneously open to 
receive the truths. Thus the Lectures to which you now 
listen with a respectful, though it may bs in some cases 
with a vacant manner, may meet your eye, when far from 
the scenes with which you now are familiar ; far from the 
friend who now addresses you, and whose voice may then 
be forever silent. How quickly then would your atten- 
tion be aroused ; how rapidly would recollection glance at 
one past scene after another, the various characters and 
events which since your school days had given coloring to 
your life ; and how deeply you might regret that you had 
not listened to that admonition which bade you beware 
how you suffered your standard of virtue and merit to be 
unduly influenced by casual circumstances. 

Let fashion direct the form of a hat, the cut of a sleeve, 
and we will even allow her an influence over manners 



46 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

and deportment ; but let her not presume to enter the sa- 
cred precincts of virtue, to weigh against moral worth 
the gaudy plumage of which she boasts, or with her light 
wand to expel conscience, that stern and faithful monitor, 
from her guardianship over the heart. 

You see, my dear girls, how important it is that your pre- 
possessions should be on the side of virtue. Among the 
number with whom you here associate, you will not fail of 
finding some who entertain false ideas with respect to char- 
acter ; and you will be in great danger of lowering your 
own standard of moral feeling, unless you learn to ex- 
amine for yourselves, and to watch over your accidental 
associations of thought. 

It is indeed of the utmost importance, that, in public 
institutions, a high moral standard should exist; that the 
hearts of its pupils, not only on their own account, but for 
the sake of those who are associated with them should, as 
far as possible, be secured in behalf of correct principles. 
Especially is it necessary that a balance on the side of 
virtue should prevail; this will produce harmony in the 
support of what is right and good : — pupils who enter such 
an institution, find the work of self-government and of vir- 
tuous training almost accomplished for them. 

In families, we see, in general, prevailing characteris- 
tics. Some aim chiefly at holding a high rank in fash- 
ionable life ; — without seeming to possess much natural af- 
fection, and while in private very deficient in kind and 
disinterested offices among themselves, they endeavor, 
by various artifices, to set each other off before the world. 
This is wholly the result of selfishness : they wish their 
brother, sister, or cousin to appear genteel, because the 
reverse, they think, would disgrace themselves. It would 
be a fatal blow to be thought to have vulgar relations : of 
the moral character of those relations, they take little 
trouble ; for, as in the circle in which they are proud to 
move, morality is out of the question, so long as a fair 
outside appears, they make clean the externals, but with- 
in are full of strifes, envyings, and deceit. Sould we take 
a glance behind the curtain, and view the domes- 
tic life of a family where no moral or religious prin- 
ciple binds together those whose interests are constant- 



\ 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 47 

ly clashing, and who need mutual self-denial and for- 
bearance, what scenes would present themselves ! 
Here the mask is thrown off, and each understanding the 
game which is going on, can feel no confidence that he 
or she in their turn is not to be deceived. Are there 
no females who are gentle as zephyrs before the world, 
and in private blustering as the north wind 1 are there 
not those who seem to have two faces, one decked in 
smiles and tender glances, the other distorted with evil 
passions ? Suppose one of the other sex meets in the 
circles of fashion with an angelic creature, whose face 
seems the very image of moral virtue ; her sweet accents 
and winning smiles sink into the heart, and he feels that 
she is the being to make glad his future path in life. With 
a trembling heart, he asks from her lips the sentence on 
which his earthly all depends : if he is rich, handsome 
and genteel, the votaries of fashion does not keep him 
long in suspense, for the great object of her artifices is to 
be consummated by such an union. Alas, poor youth, thy 
destiny in this world is indeed sealed ! thou art like the fly 
caught in the spider's web ; and too late wilt thou see 
thine own folly. For a little time the mask may still be 
worn, and if there are some lingering sentiments of moral 
beauty in the mind of the fashionable bride, she will per- 
haps intend always to appear to be, what she knows her 
husband thinks she is; but at the first opposition to her 
own will, the first call upon herself-denial and disinterest- 
edness, the disguise is dropped, and the traces of beauty 
are no longer visible to the eye of the appalled husband ! 

You may feel that I am severe upon my own sex. The 
vices and deceptions of the other, it is not now my prov- 
ince to expose. It is probable, that in most cases, the 
cheat is mutual ; and when the mask which concealed 
the character of one, drops off, the assumed disguise of 
the other is not long retained ; and that both parties are 
left to gaze upon each other with mutual horror and dis- 
gust. 

What a picture of human life is this ! And, my dear 
girls, can you wonder that we, to whom the forming of 
your characters are committed, should so anxiously de- 
sire that you may indeed be all that we would have you seem 
to be ? You are now young ; your hearts are not yet so- 



48 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

phisticated by the influence of a life of pleasure and dissi- 
pation. An occasional glance at such scenes must have 
shown you how strongly fortified your minds should be with 
the principles of religion and virtue, to enable you to re- 
sist their allurements. Here then, at this place, where the 
youthful mind is in a measure to be formed, and where it 
is to be fortified against the seductions of the world, how 
necessary it is that an elevated standard of moral char- 
acter should prevail ! If even here, fashion can enthral 
you with her fetters, restraining the spontaneous effusions 
of your youthful hearts, directing by her influence your 
affections and friendships, what will you become when 
your present restraints are removed, and the temptations 
of the world assail you ? Are any of you willing to 
believe or say, ' My chief ambition shall be to figure 
in the region of fashion ; the amiable qualities of the 
heart, the acquirements of intellect and the integrity 
of virtue shall have no charms for me ! The incense of 
my heart shall be offered at the shrine of wealth and 
pleasure ! ' Each of you would now feel insulted by 
having such sentiments ascribed to you ; and yet there 
is danger that the fascinations of the world, acting upon 
a cherished love of admiration and pleasure, may hurry 
you into the vortex of thoughtless dissipation, ' where vir- 
tue is forgot, and human follies reign.' 

We wish you to pay such attention to dress and man- 
ners as may suit those stations in life to which you may 
be called ; at the same time we would endeavor to con- 
vince you that these are but the accompaniments, not the 
chief excellencies of a lady. The whole course of study 
recommended by the regulations of the institution with re- 
spect to your care of your rooms, occasional attention to 
domestic operations under the eye of the superintendent, 
all are designed to make you domestic, useful and good 
women. We would not that you should be like the but- 
terfly, who, when on giddy wing she has sported away 
the short summer of youth and beauty, sinks into obliv- 
ion at the first approach of winter ; but like the ever- 
green, which seems brightest and most beautiful when 
the frosts prevail, may your old age exhibit the loveli- 
ness of virtue, and the beauty of that holiness which shall 
flourish in perennial verdure in the paradise of God. 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 49 

LECTURE V. 

Physical Education. 

Before proceeding to consider the subjects connected 
with intellectual improvement, I shall make some remarks 
upon the development of the senses, or those external 
organs, by whose means the soul communicates with ma- 
terial objects. Although these organs are the gift of na- 
ture, it is by practice or experience that they become 
truly useful to man. 

The term physical education is used in reference 
to the improvements which can be effected in the 
human frame and the senses, by a proper system of 
discipline. Among the ancients, physical education 
occupied a large share of attention : it is now be- 
coming a subject of inquiry among those who perceive 
the evils which have resulted to the body from a dispro- 
portioned cultivation of the intellectual powers. Mind 
is ultimately the object to be acted upon, in physical as 
in other branches of education. That department of the 
mind to which we are now to give our attention, is called 
by metaphysical writers, by the general term, external 
states of mind. These external states refer to the mind, 
as affected by external objects, as affecting the body, or 
as being affected by the body : they are also known by 
the general term sensations. With sensation, perception is 
intimately connected, the latter being the knowledge of 
the material world which the former communicates ;-thus, 
you put your hand upon the stove, and you have the 
sensation of heat; by this you perceive that the stove is 
hot. The-term consciousness is also superadded by some 
metaphyscians ; — thus, you feel the heat ; this is a sensa- 
tion ; you perceive the stove is hot, and you are conscious 
or know that you do thus feel and perceive. The term 
consciousness appears superfluous, for we cannot feel or 
perceive without knowing that we do so. 

Music, drawing, and whatever is addressed to the eye 
and ear, are physical operations, inasmuch as they re- 
quire the agency of the bodily organs in their execution, 
5 



50 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 

or affect the mind through the agency of corporeal or- 
gans : but the judgment which decides upon the merits 
of these performances, end the emotions which they excite, 
together constituting the complex state of mind called 
taste, belong to the department of intellectual, rather than 
physical education. 

Physical education commences almost with existence. 
The new-born infant shows itself capable of sensations ; 
if a pin is carelessly placed in its dress, its plaintive cries 
at once denote that it is born with the power of suffer- 
ing : it is the sense of touch which is now the organ of 
communication. This same sense appears almost as 
early to afford enjoyment : the infant, while gratifying 
another sense, that of taste, in imbibing the food 
which nature provides for its sustenance, seems no 
less delighted in clasping with instinctive fondness 
the soft, kind hand which sustains its feebleness. If 
it is disquieted, the gentle tones of its mother lull it to 
repose ; when it awakes, its eye unconsciously wan- 
ders until resting upon the maternal smile, a new joy 
irradiates its countenance. This is the period which 
seems to distinguish the human being from the young 
of the brute species : no answering smile of love 
is ever seen among them ; and although in the acute- 
ness and perfection of their senses and in the rapid de- 
velopment of their physical powers, they usually surpass 
the infant, yet here the little immortal manifests the ra- 
tional principle which is to endure forever. 

It is with the infant, then, that physical education be- 
gins. Accustomed to constant rocking, or to being 
carried about in the arms, it forms a habit which re- 
quires indulgence. If it is early dosed with laudanum, 
elixirs, or ardent spirits, that it may be quieted or put to 
sleep, a habit is formed ; this not only requires indulgence 
during infancy, but frequently lays the foundation for in- 
temperance in after life. If the infant's head is suffered 
to recline usually on one particular side, the habit is 
formed of keeping the head in that position, and the face 
itself grows awry. A child may be fed with the most 
disagreeable nostrums, until a fondness is acquired for 
that which at first was disgusting to the taste. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 51 

You perceive how early physical habits may be form- 
ed. Nor are mental habits less early or less strong 
in their growth and development ; we shall at present 
confine ourselves to the former. We have already ob- 
served that the term physical, as applied to education, 
has relation to the body. Not that the body itself, 
strictly speaking, can form any habits ; this is noth- 
ing more than a collection of particles of matter, which 
have previously existed under the various forms of animal 
or vegetable substances, and which will again be separa- 
ted to appear under new aspects, forming parts of organ- 
ic or inorganic bodies. These material atoms are not 
subject to any of the laws which govern mind ; but while 
united to the mind they are governed by it. The body 
is an instrument which the mind directs; and as in 
this state of existence they must dwell together, it 
becomes of great importance that they should mutually 
promote the welfare of each other. 

The mind may at times sigh for deliverance from its 
burthensome companion ; it may be conscious that but 
for this, it could range through the infinity of space, visit 
distant worlds, and exist in an atmosphere untainted by 
human follies : yet He, who made man, has thought proper 
to consecrate a union between matter and mind, so that 
in this life they compose but one individual. 

Through the agency of the material particles to which 
it is united, the mind looks out of itself, and by 
sensations learns the properties of the material world. 
The senses are all dependent on material organs, though 
these organs are no more the subjects of sensation, than 
is an eye-glass of vision, or an ear-trumpet of hearing. 
The eye and the ear are themselves but as inlets, through 
which colors and sounds gain access to the mind. 

To learn then the best methods of rendering the bod- 
ily organs subservient to the good of the mind, is physi- 
cal education. The body may be considered either as a 
servant which the Creator of the mind has bestowed up- 
on it, or as a travelling companion for the jourjiey of life. 
As we would strive to teach a servant his duty, to render 
him familiar with the offices which he will be required to 
perform, so should the body be trained to such exercises 



52 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 

and duties, to such privations and efforts as the good of 
the mind may require. Whether, therefore, we regard 
the body as an instrument to be wielded by the mind, an 
humble companion, or a servant, the importance of at- 
tention to it, as closely connected with ourselves (for it is 
the mind which constitutes our identity) need not be 
urged. 

The children of persons in the lower classes of so- 
ciety usually J.ive wholly for the body. Play and labor, 
eating and sleeping make up the history of their early 
days. Or if they go to school and learn to read and 
write, their intellectual exercises are of so low a nature, 
as to leave the balance greatly in favor of the body. We 
sometimes see, even under such unfavorable circum- 
stances, the workings of intellect, as if struggling to 
escape from the rubbish under which it lies ; — we see 
spirits endued with great power and force, burst opposing 
barriers and urge an onward course, mounting upwards 
like the eagle, impatient to gaze upon the fountains of 
intellectual light. 

It is, however, rare for the children of very poor 
and debased parents to make such an escape from 
the chains in which mind is held by matter. The case 
of those who rise from obscurity and become intellectu- 
ally great, does, in general, differ from this. Fortune 
often depresses parents whose aspiring minds never sink 
or become debased under any circumstances. Many a 
coarse and homely hearth sees gather around its evening 
fire, those who, after a day of toil, enjoy • the feast of 
reason, and the flow of soul,' which cannot even be com- 
prehended by many of the triflers who walk over Eastern 
carpets, and proudly recline on Grecian couches. 

When looking at the sturdy child of poverty, whose 
ruddy face and sinewy form denote the full develop- 
ment of bodily powers, but whose dull and vacant eye, 
indicates the absence of thought, we feel, that the hu- 
man being has not. risen to the dignity of his nature. 
Destitute of moral elevation and intellectual culture, 
man is but little superior to the brute creation : it is only 
when all his faculties, physical, intellectual and moral are 
seen to act in harmonious concert, that he appears capa- 
ble of enjoying or bestowing happiness. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 53 

A sound mind in a sound body (' mens sana in corpore 
sano ') was an ancient motto, denoting the most perfect 
state of man as a human being : but as the field of knowl- 
edge has been widening by new discoveries, the intel- 
lectual part of mankind have fallen into the error of 
neglecting bodily health in their zeal for mental improve- 
ment. As respects our own sex, both fashion, and in- 
creased attention to the mind, have been alike injurious 
in producing habits tending to physical derangement 
and debility. 

We have remarked upon the early formation of physi- 
cal habits, commencing even in infancy. The senses 
then learn their duties ; the touch corrects the errors of 
sight, and all reciprocally aid each other in informing 
the mind of the properties of matter. 

The sensations are an important class of our mental 
faculties ; for you must remember, that hearing and see- 
ing are no less states of the mind, than judging or loving. 
Education is employed upon mind alone. When the 
mother would teach her child to walk, she influences its 
mind to will the use of its limbs. She holds out an 
orange, and thus by exciting the desire of possessing it, 
she tempts the child to move. The will, obeying the im- 
pulse of desire and having power over the bodily organs, 
raises the feet, and impels the body towards the wished 
for object. 

The senses need no foreign aid to bring them into use ; 
yet even with them, habit has great iufluence, as may be 
seen in those whose business leads them to the exercise 
of one sense more than another. The feelings of taste 
earlv mingle with our sensations : all children love mu- 
sic, and their future taste in this science depends much 
on their early associations. Pictures delight children, 
and according as those which are presented to them are 
well or ill executed, their taste with respect to them will 
probably be of a delicate or coarse nature. 

All the motions of the body are subject to the influ- 
ence of habit. Stooping while walking and sitting may 
become a habit, and it is equally easy to make an up- 
right posture become such. Walking with the toes turn- 
5* 



54 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 

ed in, is a common habit, whereas the more graceful mode 
of turning them out, and thereby enlarging the base of 
support and rendering motion or rest easier, might with 
equal facility be acquired. 

It is however too late to warn most of you of the im- 
portance of childhood with respect to physical habits ; 
you have all contracted those of some kind or other, ei- 
ther good or bad. But it should excite our gratitude to 
the former of our bodies and the author of our minds, 
that strong as the power of habit may be, the mind still 
possesses a controlling power to alter and to correct what 
we see amiss either in our physical, intellectual or 
moral habits. 

In common with many others who have taken a 
share in the education of the young, we feel that phys- 
ical education has been too much neglected. In the 
mental efforts which the teachers, as well as pupils of this 
institution have been obliged to make, in order to attain 
the desired standard of intellectual improvement, much 
has been suffered, through a neglect of exercise. 

When the mind is deeply interested in literary 
and scientific pursuits, it is prone to forget the body ; 
this, by being suffered to remain long inactive, becomes 
reluctant to move, and visits back such neglect, by 
headaches, languors, sleeplessness, indigestion, and a 
thousand other ills tending to paralyze the mental 
energies. Aware as we all are of this danger, connected 
with the pursuits of knowledge, it is to be hoped we may 
profit by past experience, and retrieve as far as possible, 
by a systematic course of exercise, the health which has 
been sacrificed. 

Calisthenics,* or female gymnastics, is very pro- 
perly becoming a branch of education. I have, how- 
ever, seen with regret, that many of you appear to en- 
gage in these exercises with reluctance, as if every 
moment taken from your studies were time lost. With 
the view already given of the intimate connection 

* From two Greek words signifying grace and strength. A 
small work on Calisthenics, recently published by Messrs. Hunt- 
ington, Hartford, would be found useful in female seminaries. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 55 

between the mind and body, you must be convinced 
that the latter cannot with impunity be neglected. And 
yet even our pleasant morning walks seem by some to 
be counted an unnecessary and tedious task, and youth- 
ful limbs are sometimes seen dragged heavily along, 
as if already touched by age and infirmity. An early 
walk in a fine summer morning to our classic Mount 
Ida,* will not only afford a needful physical exercise, 
but presenting you with a lovely picture of the com- 
bined beauties of nature and art, tend to raise in your 
minds cheerful images, and to lead your thoughts to 
the Author of all good. 

Those of you who have become interested in the 
different branches of natural science, particularly Bot- 
any and Geology, have found a new interest in the 
works of nature, and new motives now lead you to 
ramble over its wild and sequestered scenes. 

As a branch of physical education, dancing is recom- 
mended by physicians ; when practised merely as a school 
exercise, it seems not liable to the objections which ma- 
ny urge against promiscuous dancing assemblies. 

Connected with physical education are music, draw- 
ing and writing, and indeed every pursuit depending 
upon bodily action : these will be considered under the 
Head of accomplishments. 

Riding on horseback is a very healthful as well as 
graceful exercise ; yet it is somewhat questionable 
whether there is not too much the appearance of dis- 
play in a young lady's prancing through the most public 
streets of a large city. A rural excursion on horseback 
is more safe and proper. 

Before dismissing the subject of physical education, 
I would remark, that, influenced by the suggestions of the 
Principal in her late letters from Paris, and by my own 
anxiety that you may have greater facilities for exercise 
in the open air, I have petitioned and obtained from the 
Corporation of Troy a considerable addition to the semi- 

* A hill on the east which overlooks the modern Troy : here, 
instead of the din of arms or the stratagems of war, is presented 
the picture of a young and flourishing city, where commerce and 
the arts, literature and science, all find a genial atmosphere. 



56 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 

nary grounds. This acquisition will afford us the means 
of cultivating flowers, so that we may expect soon to 
see Flora take her station with the muses. 

The cultivation of flowers, and indeed everything 
connected with gardening, has a most happy influence 
upon the disposition as well as the health. I scarcely 
know of an instance of a lady being at the same time 
ill-tempered and fond of cultivating flowers. I have 
known those to whom sorrow had become familiar find 
in flowers a solace for a wounded heart. To the 
cheerful they suggest images of hope and happi- 
ness, and to the disturbed mind they seem to have 
a power of imparting serenity. It is not after having 
walked among those eloquent witnesses of the power 
and benevolence of God, and inhaled the morning 
air from their dewy petals, that a woman would be 
likely to be heard using ungentle expressions towards 
her husband, her children, or domestics. It is when 
foiled in ambition to outshine others in the circles of 
fashion, when languid from dissipation,, or disgusted 
with a round of empty amusements, that a peevish and 
irritable temper may be expected. 

Beauty is essentially connected with health : exercise, 
neatness and temperance are essential to both. It is 
much to be lamented that young girls are so frequently 
imprudent with respect to the care of health. I have 
spoken of exercise, but something more is necessary — it 
should be taken at proper hours, and in a suitable dress. 
An early morning's walk in a pair of thin prunellas 
will be more injurious than even the want of exercise. 
Unless the feet are warm and dry the body cannot be in 
a state of health and comfort. The good old custom 
of former times, with respect to the knitting and wearing 
woollen has given place to idleness, and cotton and silk 
hose. These materials are too light for our north- 
ern winters. A young lady who, induced by the vanity 
of displaying a delicate foot, appears abroad in cold or 
damp weather with a stocking and shoe fit only for 
walking over a drawing room carpet, may succeed in 
attracting admiration ; but she will not fail of receiving 
severe censure for her imprudence. What man of sense 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 57 

would wish to marry a female who had no prudence 
with regard to her health 1 Would the fortune or honor 
of her husband be likely to be more dear to her than her 
own health and life ? I am sensible that imprudence of 
this kind is often the result of thoughtlessness rather than 
vanity ; young persons are not sufficiently aware of the 
danger of such exposures, and, having experienced little 
sickness, they forget the frailty of their natures, and 
what slight causes may give rise to fatal diseases. But 
having been warned by their friends, and their own sad 
experience, they are inexcusable if they continue the 
practice of carelessness involving consequences so 
serious. 

Intimately connected with the care of health are 
the modes of carrying the body in writing, sitting at 
the piano, walking, &c. I shall here offer the re- 
marks of a physician,* respecting the structure of that 
part of the human form which becomes bent and dis- 
torted by the contraction of certain injurious and bad 
habits. 

' The weight of the principal part of the body or trunk, 
the weight of the neck, the head and the two upper 
extremities, are supported by a single bony column, call- 
ed the spine. This column is about three inches in 
diameter. It consists of twenty-four pieces of bone 
placed one on the other; and between each two is 
interposed a substance, somewhat resembling caout- 
chouc, or India-rubber, for the purpose of giving it 
elasticity. This column is hollow, and contains the 
spinal marrow. Now the spinal marrow is the origin and 
source of the nerves, that convey the influence necessa- 
ry to voluntary motion ; and they are sent off in pairs 
to the various muscles. The bony pieces of the spine 
are confined together by many small ligaments, by the 
elastic substance just spoken of, and by numerous 
muscles, affixed, not only to connect and support, but 
also to move them. 

- The bones of the spine, at an early period of life, are 

* See Dr. Warren's lecture on Physical Education before the 
American Institute of Instruction. 



58 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 

themselves in part composed of an elastic, cartilaginous 
or gristly substance ; and are always of a porous and 
sponge like texture. In consequence of this kind of 
organization, the spinal column possesses much elastici- 
ty and flexibility, which enable it to yield and to move 
in different directions, and expose it to receive perma- 
nent flexures, when there is a deficiency of natural 
strength in its composing parts. 

* Causes which affect the health, and produce general 
weakness, operate powerfully on this part, in conse- 
quence of the complexity of its structure, and the great 
burden it supports. When weakened, it gradually yields 
under its weight, becomes bent and distorted, losing its 
natural curves, and acquiring others, in such directions 

I as the operation of external causes tend to give to it ; 

"i and these curves will be proportioned, in their perma- 

nence, to the producing causes. If the supporting part 
is removed from its true position, the parts supported 
necessarily follow, and thus a distortion of the spine 
effects a distortion of the trunk of the body. 

' The change commonly begins at the part which 
supports the right arm. The column bends towards the 
right shoulder, forms a convexity on the side where 
the shoulder rests, and thus elevates the right higher 
than the other. This elevation, or, as it is commonly 
called, growing out of the shoulder, is the first phenom- 
enon that strikes the friends of the patient. Often when 
observed, it has already undergone a considerable 
change of position, and the change is not confined to 
the shoulder, nor to the portion of spine immediately 
connected with it. On examination, it will be discover- 
ed that the curvature to the right in the upper part of the 
column, is accompanied, as a natural consequence, by a 
bend of the lower part of the left, and a corresponding 
projection of the left hip. It is perfectly obvious, that 
the inclination of the upper part of a flexible stick to 
one side, will leave the lower part on the others ; and 
when, by this inclination, the vertical support is lost, a 
disposition to yield at the curving points will continually 
increase, until it be counteracted by some other power. 
Thus it happens, then, that any considerable projection 



PHYSTCAT, EDUCATION. 59 

of the right shoulder will be attended by a correspond- 
ing projection of the left hip. 

1 The rising of the shoulder involves other changes in 
the osseous* fabric. For as the spinal bones support the 
ribs, when these bones project they necessarily push 
forward the ribs dependent on them. These ribs form 
the frame of the chest, and of course the right side of 
the chest is projected forwards, and causes a deformity 
in the fore part of the body. Nor do the changes stop 
here. The posterior ends of the ribs being pushed 
forwards, and the anterior ends being confined to the 
sternum, or breast bone, the right edge of the sternum 
will be drawn forwards, and the left edge consequently 
turned backwards. The fore parts of the left ribs will 
be gradually forced inwards or backwards, and thus the 
left side of the chest distorted and contracted. I feel 
warranted in the assertion, that of the well educated 
females within my sphere of experience, about one half 
are affected with some degree of distortion of the 
spine.' 

The physician from whom I have borrowed this simple 
and unaffected description of a part of the human anato- 
my, proceeds to consider the causes of the distortion and 
derangement of its various parts. He notices the want 
of exercise, and the taking of food, improper in quantity 
or quality. On the latter head I should have spoken, but 
want of time obliges me to omit this, as well as many 
other subjects of important interest, connected with 
physical education. 

' The habit of bending the neck, while writing or 
drawing, gradually compresses the vertebrae, and the 
intervertebral substance on their anterior part, and 
causes a permanent change in the form of this part of 
the spinal column. This distortion is so very common 
among us, that we are apt to consider it a natural 
formation. In fact, however, it is entirely artificial in a 
great number of instances. Sometimes it is the conse- 
quence of negligence, and not unfrequently of timidity. 
Whether it tends to impair the health, always, I will not 

* Bony, from os, a bone. 



60 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 

say ; that it sometimes does, I am certain, and its effect 
in deforming the shape is even greater than a moderate 
degree of lateral curve. 

'The immediate cause of the lateral curve of the spine 
to the right, opposite to the right shoulder, is the eleva- 
tion and action of the right arm in drawing and writing. 
This posture pulls the part of the spinal column to 
which the muscles of the right arm are fixed, to the right 
side. The convexity of the spine thus produced, keeps 
the right shoulder elevated, and the left consequently 
depressed. The lower part of the column is thrown to 
the left side, and this displacement being favored by the 
disposition to rest on the left foot while standing to 
speak or read, there comes to be a permanent projection 
of the left hip. The postures employed in practising on 
musical instruments sometimes bring on these disorders ; 
as, for example, a great use of the harp favors the dispo- 
sition to lateral curvature, from the constant extension of 
the right arm.'* 

The mode of sitting at the piano ought to be carefully 
regarded ; if you comprehend the explanations with 
respect to the construction of the spine, or back bone, you 
will perceive how important it is that it should be held 
erect, and that by indulging yourselves in a crooked 
posture, the figure will at length grow distorted. You 
know that if you should keep a straight young twig con- 
fined in a bent position for a length of time, it would 
become a crooked tree. We should think it a strange 
taste in a gardener who should thus wish to pervert the 
beautiful and perfect works of God. A crooked tree 
might indeed bear good fruit, and if any of you are by 
nature distorted in body, you must endeavor to supply 
the deflect by richness of mental culture. 

In France, great pains are taken with children to give 
them the habit of holding back the shoulders and 
expanding the chest ; and it is said that the collar bone 
is longer in French women than in others. The posture 
in bed should not be habitually such as to cause a 
crooked position of the spine. High pillows are inju- 

* Dr. Warren. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 61 

nous, as they produce the same effect upon the form as 
stooping. 

With respect to walking, the carriage of the body 
must depend greatly on the perfect state of the spine ; 
the custom of holding the head up, the shoulders back 
and throwing the chest forward. You may all do much 
to improve yourselves in these respects by walking in 
your rooms with a book upon your head. In order to 
balance the book you must necessarily hold your per- 
sons erect, and instead of looking down, as young ladies 
are very apt to do, direct your eyes horizontally. ' How 
different,' says the physician already quoted, ' are the 
impressions made on us by a man whose attitude is 
erect and commanding, and by one who walks with his 
face directed to the earth, as if fearful of encountering 
the glances of those he meets ! Such attentions are 
even of greater importance to the fair sex, where we 
naturally look for attraction in some form or shape. If 
nature has not given beauty to all, she has given the 
power of acquiring a graceful movement and an upright 
form, qualities more valuable and more durable than the 
other.' 

One more subject connected with physical educa- 
tion is the habit of tight lacing. In enabling you to 
comprehend the manner in which this practice becomes 
injurious to health and destruction of life, we again refer 
to Dr. Warren's lecture. 

' Nature has so contrived the human chest, that there is 
no superfluous play of the parts composing it. Its 
movements are just sufficient to give such an expansion 
to the lungs and such an extent of oxygenation of the 
blood, as are adequate to the wants of the individual 
under different occurrences. In females the chest is 
shorter than in males; and to compensate for this, the 
motion of the ribs is more extensive, and more frequent. 
Whatever limits this motion, is peculiarly injurious to 
the sex, especially as they are more disposed to con- 
sumption and other chronic affections of the lungs. 
Now the ligatures in the fashionable dress are placed 
precisely on that part, where the motion should be the 
greatest ; that is, the lower part. It is precisely here, 
6 



62 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 

that in case of fracture of the ribs when we desired to 
stop the movements of the chest, we apply a tight band- 
age, though rarely do we venture to make it so tight as 
the ordinary corsets. The effect of such pressure, 
begun at an early period of life, will be understood from 
what has been stated in regard to the spine. The 
bones must yield to it ; their shape becomes permanent- 
ly altered ; the lower part of the breast contracted, 
the space destined by nature for the heart and lungs 
diminished, and what the fatal results of all this on 
these tender and vital organs are, every day's experience 
shows us. The influence on the health, though slow, is 
certain. It may not at once produce consumption ; but 
it lays the foundation for ills it would pain you to hear and 
me to describe. I will only say, by way of specification, 
that among other diseases, of which this is the fruitful 
germ, I have known three instances of perpetual headache, 
at last bringing on insanity, and terminating in death. 
The immediate cause of the disease was the compres- 
sion of the heart and great blood vessels, and the con- 
sequent accumulation of blood in the head.' 

You cannot fail to comprehend this simple explanation 
of that part of your own frames which you too frequently 
expose to derangements, from the foolish ambition of 
appearing slender and sylph-like. But although the 
circumference of the waist may be diminished, the 
appearance of the whole person so far from being 
improved, is much injured by tight lacing. A rush of 
blood to the head gives the face a purple and unnatural 
flush ; the muscles which give play to the arms and 
shoulders being confined, the motions appear stiff and 
ungraceful, the breathing is obstructed, and the whole 
body rendered uncomfortable. In such a situation 
who can converse with ease and confidence, and delight 
the social circle by a fine flow of thoughts, and beautiful 
mode of expression ? The mind, partaking in the suffer- 
ings of the body, becomes torpid, and instead of giving 
and receiving enjoyment, in the hours devoted to 
society, torture on the part of the victim and pity for her 
manifest sufferings are experienced. 

Corsets, when properly worn, are far from meriting the 
general condemnation which they have received. They 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 63 

may be so made as to prove a support to the body in- 
stead of an injury. A busk not too wide or too rigid 
seems to correspond to the supporting spine, and assist 
rather than impede the efforts of nature to keep the 
body erect. 

A degree of tightness, not uncomfortable or impeding 
any of the functions of respiration, is probably conducive 
to health. It prevents that weakness of the stomach of 
which many females, especially those who do not wear 
corsets, frequently complain. A moderate compression 
of the chest is thought also by physicians to check a 
tendency to dropsy. Indeed it is with corsets, as many 
other things, that it is the abuse rather than the use of 
them which is to be condemned. 

In concluding my remarks on physical education, I 
would recommend to you a practice suggested by a 
French writer,* viz. that of keeping a kind of physical 
journal, or a record of your observations upon your own 
peculiar constitutions. In order to make these obser- 
vations, it will be necessary to pay particular atten- 
tion to the degree and kinds of exercise most condu- 
cive to your health, the quantity and kinds of food 
most salutary, as well as the best seasons for tak- 
ing particular kinds of food. Thus some persons find 
that breakfasting upon meat makes them dull and heavy, 

vvliilo the oonotitutiono of olhore roquirco niuie uf SOllU 

food. Late suppers are probably found by all to be 
injurious. By attention to physical changes, and an 
observation of those simple remedies which are found 
efficacious in relieving slight complaints, females may 
learn to preserve and regulate their own healths without 
the aid of a physician, except in cases of sudden and 
acute diseases. A knowledge of Chemistry and Botany 
will prove of great use to you, with respect to an 
acquaintance with medicine. Every woman ought to 
understand the elements and composition of the reme- 
dies prescribed for her, or by her administered to 
others. Without a knowledge of Chemistry .she cannot 
be made to comprehend this, but with it, she holds a 

* M. Jullien. 



64 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 

key that will unlock the mysteries with which ignorant 
physicians have sought to envelope the healing art. 

If you ask a physician the component parts of a 
medicine which he orders, and he is unable to answer, 
you have reason to doubt his qualifications for his 
profession. Scientific practioners do not fail to investi- 
gate the chemical elements of the substances they use, 
and it is by a knowledge of these elements, and of their 
modes of combination, aided by experience, that they can 
calculate on the effects to be produced. A knowledge 
of Botany will enable you to ascertain with certainty the 
identity of plants which are important as medicinal 
agents : the common names of plants, being traditional 
and local, it is impossible to decide on them with 
certainty ; but Botany will furnish you with a sure and 
unerring guide to their true name, as recognized by 
physicians. 

In the department of your journal devoted to physical 
changes, it would be well to keep a record of medicines 
whose effects you had witnessed on yourselves or others, 
with their composition and nature ; if vegetable remedies, 
give their botanical names and characters. Females 
have much need of some medical knowledge, both with 
reference to their individual maladies and the diseases 
of those around them : and although accustomed, as 

IllOSt of you havp hpen, to bo watched over and adminio 

tered unto, you can now have little conception of the 
changes which will take place ; yet the time may soon ar- 
rive when it will become your turn to watch over, and 
minister to others. 

According to the arrangement which we have made of 
the departments of education, we shall next proceed to 
consider intellectual improvement. 

This will demand much attention, as it involves the 
subject of mental discipline, and the consideration of the 
various branches of study in which yo« are now engag- 
ed. Even the study of moral philosophy, considered as a 
science, properly comes under the head of intellectual 
improvement, though as an art, or in its practical appli- 
cation, it properly belongs to the ethical or moral depart- 
ment. 



DIVISION OF MENTAL FACULTIES. 65 

Our attention will now be devoted to the consideration 
of those means by which the slumbering energies of 
mind may be aroused, and those energies strengthened 
and developed. 

In remarking upon the different branches of study, it 
will be my object, 1st, to give general views of the his- 
tory and progress of each science; 2d, its prominent prin- 
ciples and its relations to other sciences ; 3d, its objects 
and practical applications. I may depart from this 
method in some cases, as where it seems most proper to 
consider first the principles of a science, or where it ap- 
pears unnecessary to treat of the history of a science 
distinctly from its outlines. 



LECTURE VI. 



Division of Mental Faculties. — Mental Discipline. — ■ 
Cultivation of Mental Faculties. 

The mind is the object on which education operates, 
Even those habits which seem to depend wholly upon the 
body, we see have their origin in the mind, without whose 
vivifying influence the human machine would be as in- 
active as the marble statue, or the body from whence the 
soul has departed. Physical education has relation to 
the mind, as governing the body, and capable of making 
it the willing and ready instrument of a variety of sensa- 
tions and muscular movements. Physical education also 
includes that care of the body which is due to it as the 
tenement of the soul, and on whose sound condition the 
welfare of the latter so much depends. 

Before proceeding with our remarks on intellectual im- 
provement, it may be proper to give the outlines of a 
classification of the states of mind which has of late been 
received with great approbation both in Europe and Arae- 

6* 



66 DIVISION OF MENTAL FACULTIES. 

rica ; I mean that of Dr. Brown, to which allusion has al- 
ready been made. According to this, all our mental 
phenomena may be referred to three great classes, first, 
External states of mind; these include all our sensations, 
as derived from smell, taste, touch and sight, and also all 
the feelings which arise from the action of the muscles ; 
or which are raised in the mind from external objects, or 
from changes of the body, which is external with respect 
to the mind. Second, Intellectual states of mind ; these 
include what some writers have called the reasoning pow- 
ers, the powers of the understanding , intellectual powers, 
&,c. Third, Emotions ; these include what have been 
termed active powers ; but Dr. Brown very properly as- 
serts, that the mind when in that state called hope, or joy, 
is no more active than when engaged in reasoning, or im- 
agining ; a classification must, therefore, be defective 
which makes a property common to both classes the 
foundation of a distinction. 

The intellectual states of mind and the emotions uni- 
tedly form a more general division, called internal states, 
in contra-distinction to external. These internal states are 
such as the mind could experience, were it separated from 
the body. If we could imagine a living human being 
with the entire loss of all his bodily senses,* although he 
would be cut off from all external objects, yet we can 
conceive that he might remember the past, he might grieve 
for his melancholy fate, and might hope for death to 
set his spirit free from its living and breathing tomb. It 
is this capacity of the mind to * enter into its own sanctu- 
ary and to commune with itself,' which, as Dr. Brown re- 
marks, renders it ' truly immortal' and independent of the 
perishable atoms to which it is now united. 

Fearing that I may not have done justice to Dr. Brown's 

* This supposition is not as absurd as may at first be imagined. 
Aged persons sometimes gradually lose their sight, hearing, taste, 
and smell ; and yet they are no less living beings than before the 
loss of their senses. We cannot suppose that the only remaining 
sense, that of touch, is the link between life and death. Instan- 
ces too have occurred, in which persons have been under the in- 
fluence of a general paralysis ; that is, they have been wholly 
incapable of muscular motion, and almost insensible to touch, and 
this without being rendered incapable of thinking or reasoning. 



DIVISION OF MENTAL FACULTIES. 67 

classification, I will repeat it in his own words. 'We 
have sensations, or perceptions of objects that affect our 
bodily organs ; these, I term the sensitive or external af- 
fections of the mind; we remember objects, we imagine 
them in new situations, we compare their relations ; these 
mere conceptions, or notions of objects and their quali- 
ties, as elements of our general knowledge, are what I 
have termed the intellectual states of mind; we are mov- 
ed with certain lively feelings, on the consideration of 
what we thus perceive, remember, imagine, or compare, 
with feelings for example, of beauty or sublimity or as- 
tonishment, or love, ox hatred, or hope, or fear ; these and 
various other vivid feelings analagous to them, are our 
emotions. There is no portion of our consciousness 
which does not appear to me to be included in one or 
other of these three divisions. To know all our sensi- 
tive states, all our intellectual states, and all our emo- 
tions, is to know all the states or phenomena of the mind.' 

In treating upon physical education, we have consid- 
ered the mind in relation to its external affections. We 
shall now proceed to consider our second division of the 
departments of education — intellectual improvement; 
this will comprehend Dr. Brown's second division, or the 
intellectual powers. 

In entering upon the subject of intellectual improve- 
ment, a vast field opens before us ; it will be impossible 
to do more than to take a rapid and cursory view of 
the many important subjects which present themselves. 
We shall consider in what manner the mental powers 
should be disciplined in order that they may strengthen 
and develope themselves, and then proceed to notice the 
various branches of literature and science which are the 
subjects of your present studies. 

We have seen under the head of physical education, how 
much depends on habit, and it was remarked that intel- 
lectual habits are as early formed and of as permanent a 
nature as those which relate to the body. Mr. Locke ob- 
serves, ' We are born with faculties and powers, capable 
of almost anything ; but it is only the exercise of those 
powers which gives us ability and skill in anything, and 
leads us towards perfection. As it is in the body, so it 



68 DIVISION OF MENTAL FACULTIES. 

is in the mind ; practice makes it what it is, and most 
even of those excellences which are looked on as natural 
endowments, will be found, when examined into more nar- 
rowly, to be the product of exercise, and to be raised to 
that pitch only by repeated actions.' Many of you can 
bear witness to the truth of Mr. Locke's assertion, respect- 
ing the power of habit. You will recollect the difficulty 
you at first found in investigating the subjects you were 
required to study. Accustomed as many of you had 
been to a mechanical parrot-like mode of recitation, where 
the memory and not the understanding was taxed, you 
felt that it would be impossible to study and recite as 
your classmates did. You heard them give long analyses 
of works on rhetoric, history, or philosophy, explain- 
ing in their own words with clearness and facility the 
ideas of their authors ; and you believed yourself wholly 
incompetent to the attainment of such powers. You 
heard with astonishment those of your own age demon- 
strating with clearness and force some of the most diffi- 
cult mathematical propositions, and you gave them credit 
for faculties of a higher order than you possessed. You 
now look back on those feelings with mingled emotions 
of shame and pride ; of shame that you should thus have 
undervalued your own talents, and pride that you have 
overcome obstacles and acquired a habit of patient inves- 
tigation. This habit is of infinitely more importance 
than all other intellectual attainments. Were a person 
accustomed to reasoning, reflecting, comparing and judg- 
ing, to be required to give up those mental habits, or the 
knowledge gained by their means, he would not hesitate 
to part with acquisitions already made, rather than to 
lose the 'instruments by which they had been gained. 
Persons who have gained wealth can lay aside those hab- 
its of business by which it had been amassed, feeling as- 
sured that they shall be able to meet their future wants ; 
but the treasures of knowledge, although rich, may not 
thus answer for future occasions ; — in the ever varying, 
ever changing scenes of life, we are continually placed 
in new situations, where we need to make new compari- 
sons, and act on new principles : thus we require the in- 
struments of mental labor to be ever bright and ready for 
use. 



CULTIVATION OF MENTAL FACULTIES. 69 

In the view we are now taking of education con- 
sidered in reference to the nature of the mind, it may be 
well to note those mental faculties which it. is the object 
of intellectual improvement to cultivate and develope. I 
shall not, as we proceed, confine myself to that peculiar 
view of the mind which the author whose general divis- 
ions I have adopted has given, but shall use the terms 
reason, judgment, memory, &c. according to their general 
acceptations, viz., as distinct powers : they may be con- 
sidered as genera, belonging to the class intellectual pow- 
ers. I shall use this arrangement for the sake of conve- 
nience, although the minuter analysis of Dr. Brown very 
justly reduces the many supposed intellectual powers un- 
der the two generic terms, simple and relative suggestion, 
the former including conception, memory, imagination 
and habit; the latter reason, judgment, abstraction, the 
power of generalizing, &c. 

We may now consider the human mind as a gar- 
den laid out before us : he who created this garden, 
planted in it the seeds of various faculties ; these do in- 
deed spring up of themselves, but without education, 
they will be stinted in their growth, choked with weeds, 
and never attain that strength and elevation of which they 
are susceptible. In one part of our garden the germ 
of reason is seen to unfold itself, in another appears that 

of memory, in another that of judgment, until all the fac- 
ulties of the intellect are in their full progress of develop- 
ment. The emotions and passions are mingled with 
powers of slower growth : while the intellectual gardener 
cultivates the latter with assiduous care, he knows that 
the passions need his most vigilant attention ; that if they 
grow rank andunpruned, like the fatal Bohan Upas, they 
will poison and destroy the vital principle of virtue, and 
root out the moral harmony on which the beauty of the 
whole depends Leaving the passions and emotions to be 
hereafter considered, our concern now is with those men- 
tal germs which belong to the intellectual department. 
The skilful gardener knows that his roses require one mode 
of culture, his tulips another, and his geraniums another; 
and that attention to one of these, will not bring forward 
the other. So ought the mental cultivator to understand 



70 CULTIVATION OF MENTAL FACULTIES. 

that the germs of the various faculties should be simul- 
taneously brought forward. This truth seemed not to 
have been understood by those, who, bending all their ef- 
forts towards the cultivation of the memory, neglected 
the other powers of the mind. 

To show you more plainly what is meant by these 
remarks, I will state a very common fact with respect 
to pupils whose memory has been cultivated at the 
expense of their other faculties. Many such have 
entered this institution, flushed with the hope of standing 
highest in their classes, as they had done where only mem- 
oriter recitations were required. Confident of knowing 
' every word of her lesson,' such a pupil has entered her class 
expecting that all would admire the fluency with which 
she should 'say it off.' Her teacher, instead of suggest- 
ing the mere words of the lesson, perhaps demands the 
nature of the subject she has been studying : this 
unexpected question confuses her ; for the truth is, she 
has never investigated it at all ; she had not learned that 
words are nothing, except as they are the medium of 
communicating ideas; she had always taken the shadow 
for the substance, and is now astonished that she had never 
before thought it necessary to understand what she 
learned. 

The mental habit of exclusively connecting words by 

the mere relation of contiguity, i«» very injurious to 

the mind : when a pupil becomes aware of the un- 
profitableness of the exercise, it is often difficult to call 
forth the reasoning powers, which have hitherto lain 
dormant. On the other hand, that exercise of memory 
which depends on contiguity or juxta-position, should 
not be neglected. In the acquisition of certain scien- 
ces, and in certain departments of literature, it is impor- 
tant that some things should be learned by rote ; as in 
languages, the declensions and conjugations of words ; 
and in arithmetic the numeration and other tables ; 
portions of scripture and hymns also should be taught to 
children, even though they are above their compre- 
hension, for in after life they may be remembered with 
deep interest and satisfaction. As the other powers 
develope, the faculty of remembering words in a certain 



I I I.TIVATION Of MKMAI, FACULTIES. 71 

order is weakened ; thus it is that per§oni accustomed 
to deep thinking, find it almost impossible to tarn 
anything by rote; tins is because their powers of reason- 
ing and judging hare been much more exercised than 
their memoryt Those who acquire habits of committing 
words to memory, often acquire a wonderful facility in 
tJjis respecti as actors, who learn long parti in a play 
in a very short time ; and some orators and preacher*. 
who are said to commit to memory the whole of their 
discourses before they appear in public. 

We should not however expect that a mind, fertile in 
suggestions of analogy, glancing quick from cause to 

effect, and from Secondary to primary causes, would 

possess this kind of JoeaJ memory in a great degree. Of 
some persons distinguished Tor the greatness of their con* 
eeptions, and richness of their acquirements, it lias been 

found that even their own productions, have in progress 
pf tittle been forgotten by them; — others when writing 
upon a Sttbjeet t£ey had before treated of, seem to foj 

what they had before written j their thoughts taking anew 
turn, their language and arrangement are found t<> be - 

sentially different. Jt is not my present intention to ^ivc a 

dissertation on the mind, any farther than to show that its 
nature mustbc studied by these who would succeed in its 

cultivation, and that it is important for you, as pupils, to 
learn as much as possible of your own mental constitu- 
tions. Beside the general Jaws, which are common to all 

mind-, each has its constitutional differences, and its 
peculiar habits. Where you find your mind most weak 

by nature, you should strive most to Strengthen it by 

suitable exercises. Where you find your intellectual 

habits defective, you must endeavor to change and 
improve them. For those who have been Uttle accus- 
tomed to the exercise of the reasoning powers, it is well 

to enter upon a course of mathematical studies. Locke 
says, ( I consider mathematics as a way to settle in the 

mind a habit of reasoning closely and in a train; not 
that I think it necessary that all : should be deep mathe- 
maticians, but ihat having got the, way of reasoning 
which that study brings the mind to, they might be able 

to transfer it to other parts of knowledge as they have 
occasion.' 



72 MENTAL DISCIPLINE. 

The same writer observes in another part of his 
' Essay on the Human Understanding,' that an acquaint- 
ance with even the first book of Euclid's Elements 
of Geometry is of great use to the mind, as unfolding a 
beautiful and systematic method of reasoning. 

I shall close this Lecture, by giving a few rules, to 
assist you in the attempt to improve and discipline 
your own mental powers. 

First, Study the nature of your own minds. 

In order to assist you in this, compare yourselves with 
others. Observe their recitations, the particulars in 
which they excel or are deficient. Notice whether they 
find the same difficulties that you do. It is also a very 
useful exercise for two or more pupils of nearly equal 
abilities, to write upon some one given subject, and then 
compare their ideas and manner of treating the same 
subject. While you should be careful not to set your 
mark too low, and thus fail of what you might attain ; 
it is also important that you do not tax yourselves too 
heavily and thus injure the mind by overstraining its 
powers. 

Second, Never consider a lesson learned until you can 
give the author's ideas in your own words, or at least till 
you can point out the prominent parts of which it consists. 

This method of studying is the reverse of learning by 
rote ; it is acquired by practice, and is the only proper 
way of attempting to gain knowledge. It is impossible, 
after having read several pages of a work, to remember 
every idea which an author has advanced ; you should 
therefore strive to comprehend the main scope of his 
argument, and not dwell upon the less important ideas. 
Many pupils, from attempting to remember everything, 
fail in attaining a clear knowledge of anything. This 
habit of discriminating the more from the less important 
ideas in reading and studying, will be of great utility in 
after life. A facility is thus gained of collecting, almost 
at a glance, the subject of a whole page. 

It is by following the rule above given, that some 
of your fellow students have been able to give an 
analysis of the unabridged volumes of Brown's Philoso- 
phy of the mind. They could never have accomplished 



MENTAL DISCIPLINE. 73 

so Herculean a task, but that they first learned the leading 
argument of each page, then of each lecture, and then 
of the principal departments of the work ; and thus 
were able, in a few months,* to give with clearness the 
general arrangement of the whole work, with the minor 
divisions, and the principal ideas under each. 

Third, — Accustom yourselves to express your ideas on 
the various subjects of study, in writing. 

The practice of writing an analysis, or making a 
sketch of the lessons you are studying, is a very good 
one ; but this cannot be done until you have prepared 
yourself for it by previous study. By attempting to 
make an outline before a view of the whole has been 
taken, the mind is confused rather than assisted. It 
is well to make the sciences you study the subjects of 
your weekly compositions, sometimes taking them in 
one point of view, sometimes in another. 

Fourth, — Improve the best hovrs of the day to secure 
those lessons which require the greatest mental effort. 

The season most favorable for study is with most 
persons, the morning ; the body being then refreshed by 
sleep, and the mind by a suspension of effort ; your 
most difficult lessons, as mathematics, or philosophy, 
should be studied. Drawing, music, botany, chemistry, 
and other pursuits which, are not of an abstract nature, 
can excite an interest even when the mind is fatigued. 
But when the mind appears in any degree overstrained, 
it should be suffered to relax, until it spontaneously recov- 
ers its tone. It is evident that in all intellectual as well 
as mechanical labors, the work accomplished must be in 
proportion to the power exerted. When the mind is 
languid it is impossible for it to put forth power, time can- 
not make up for mental energy. One hour of success- 
ful effort is worth more than days of weak attempts. 
In order to keep the mind active, regularity must be ob- 
served in exercise, diet, and sleep : they gain nothing 
who disregard the body in their zeal for mental improve- 

* This study is generally pursued in the institution in connexion 
with some other branches. 



74 MENTAL DISCIPLINE. 



ment ; if disordered or enfeebled, it will certainly react 
upon the mind. 

Fifth, — Endeavor to fix your attention exclusively upon 
the study in which you are engaged. 

Attention is indeed every thing ; without it nothing 
requiring mental effort can be well done. In bodily op- 
erations we may acquire so great a facility of execution 
that we have no need of attention : thus a musician can 
perform a familiar air without thinking of his notes. 
Some feminine employments, as sewing or knitting, ope- 
rations which at first seemed complicated, in time be- 
come so familiar as to require no attention ; the hands 
seem instinctively to perform the accustomed move- 
ments : but mental exercises demand attention. 

It is perhaps the most difficult task of young students 
to gain that command of their trains of thought which 
scientific research requires. How many are diverted 
from the subject upon which they engage, by the most 
trifling circumstances ; even the appearance of a fly upon 
a window, an object in the street, or a slight noise in an 
adjoining apartment, are each sufficient to call off their 
attention. And if even no pretence should offer, the 
mind wearied with the unusual attempt at investigation, 
gladly goes in search of some more pleasing exercise of 
its powers. The enjoyments of home are called up; the 
days or weeks are counted which have intervened since 
the dear spot was left, and the many which are to pass 
until examination is over and these tedious books can 
for a time be laid aside. 

But I will not attempt to imagine all the reveries in 
which a school girl may indulge, even when demurely 
looking at her book, during the allotted time for learning 
her lessons. Your own consciences can say how often 
the ringing of the recitation bell has found you unpre- 
pared, after such unprofitable aberrations of thought. But 
let me urge all who are conscious of such injurious hab- 
its, to strive to acquire an ascendancy over yourselves, 
by carefully guarding the avenues of your minds. Be 
resolute against admitting desultory thoughts, when you 
need all your concentrated mental powers to bear upon 
the subject before you. The task will at first be diffi- 



SPELLING. 75 

cult, but you may in time have the satisfaction of feeling 
that you can fix your attention, or govern your trains of 
thought. 

Sixth, — Endeavor to understand as far as possible the 
nature, objects and ultimate end of the studies you pursue. 

Thus, when questioned as to your progress in education 
you may be able to state what you have done, what you 
design to do, and the bearing which all this is intended 
to have upon your future life. With such ideas as these 
fixed in your mind, you will not, when hereafter questioned 
as to what you did in school, have occasion to say with the 
young lady, who, returning from a boarding school, and 
bein 6 asked what she had studied, answered, that she 
' could not tell without looking at her books, and they 
were all in her trunks.' , 

May you, my dear pupils, have your intellectual and 
moral natures imbued with the instructions you are now 
receiving ; and may the fruits of an enlarged and liberal 
education appear in elevation of character, and the adapta- 
tion of your minds to the various exigencies of life ; — 
may you be not only intelligent and intellectual women, 
but good members of society, faithful and judicious in 
all your relations in life, and above all, pious and consist- 
ent christians. 



LECTURE VII. 

Reading. — Spelling. — A rticulate Sounds. 

From our previous remarks upon intellectual improve- 
ment, it may be inferred that a proper discipline of the 
mind is of still greater importance to the young, than 
the mere acquisition of knowledge. 

The various branches of modern education have been 
considered under two heads : 1. Such as seem chiefly 
valuable on account of their effect in strengthening and 
developing the mental powers. 2. Such as are chiefly 
useful for the knowledge they convey. In the former 



76 SPELLING. 

class are ranked mathematics and languages; in the lat- 
ter, geography, history, &,c. 

We cannot, however, make any definite classification of 
the different departments of learning on these principles, 
since the acquisition of any one science has a beneficial 
effect on the mind, whose capacity for receiving increases 
in proportion as it receives. On the other hand, there 
is no science but may be highly useful in its applications. 

Geography, which is considered chiefly useful for the 
knowledge of facts which it communicates, affords exer- 
cise for many of the faculties of the mind; the memory 
in retaining facts, the power of comparison when viewing 
different countries with their peculiarities as to physical 
and moral condition, of abstraction when a river or moun- 
tian are considered without reference to any other cir- 
cumstance. Geometry, which is so higly recommended 
by Locke and others, for its influence in training the 
mind to habits of reasoning and methodical arrangement, 
has its practical applications to astronomy, drawing, nat- 
ural philosophy, and mechanics. 

With respect to the various branches of natural science, 
botany, chemistry, &c, it would be difficult to say 
whether they are most to be valued for their intrinsic 
utility, or for their salutary influence upon the mind. 
The inquiry is often made of what use can it be for a fe- 
male to study botany or chemistry. Such, inquiries show 
either an illiberal spirit, or great ignorance. Considered 
in reference to the mind only,, these studies are of vast 
importance ; botany accustoms the mind to systematic 
arrangement, definite rules of classifications, and strict 
attention to the import of terms ; chemistry, by its minute 
analysis, gives a habit of discrimination and observation, 
which is of the utmost importance to all, especially to 
those who are about commencing the journey of life. 
Neither are these sciences without their important prac- 
tical applications ; these will be considered when we come 
to treat of each individually. 

I shall now proceed to the various branches of fe- 
male education, endeavoring to give general views of 
the different sciences, their origin and history, their ad- 
vantages and practical applications. The first step in 



SPELLING. 77 

the literary education of a child after it has learned the 
alphabet, is that to put the letters together, forming the 
compound sounds called syllables; and then to unite 
these syllables into words. This process is called spelling, 
and also orthography, from the Greek orthos, correct, and 
graphia, writing, meaning to write words correctly. The 
term orthoepy from orthos, correct, and cpo, I speak, sig- 
nifies correct pronunciation. 

The habit of spelling correctly is an acquirement so 
necessary, that the want of it cannot be overlooked in 
any one who makes pretensions to an education above 
the lowest grade. There are, indeed, persons who, al- 
though deprived of the means of early improvement, have, 
by industry and talents, gained wealth and influence 
without being able to spell correctly. But such feel their 
deficiency with the keenest sense of mortification, and 
would be the first to caution young persons against care- 
lessness in this respect. 

It might seem as if in addressing: the members of this 
institution, it were unnecessary to dwell for a moment on 
the importance of a branch of education which it is the 
business of primary schools to teach, and which you 
ought to be perfected in, before your entrance into this. 
Yet I am sorry to say, that too many, who are ambitious 
of the higher walks of literature, are careless in this re- 
spect. 

Owing to the defective method of teaching spelling in 
many primary schools, pupils often leave them with little 
practical knowledge of this important branch. To learn 
to spell long columns of words, arranged without any re- 
ference to their meaning, proves not to be of much use 
when the pupil attempts to write. I have known a pupil 
who was distinguished as the best speller in a common 
school, and who seldom was known to ' miss a word in her 
lesson/ scarcely able to write a letter which could be read, 
from the badness of its orthography. She had been accus- 
tomed to connect the letters with the sound of the words. 
In schools where the only method of spelling is with the 
voice, it is customary for the pupils in studying their les- 
sons to move the lips, and many cannot study without 

doing this. In writing, theeye must be practised in order to 

7# 



78 SPELLING. 

detect erroneous spelling. It is for this reason that we 
approve and practise the mode of teaching spelling by 
dictation, or the pupils writing words upon a slate, or a 
blackboard, after the dictation of the teacher. By care- 
fully following this mode, you may soon correct any bad 
habits with regard to spelling, which you have been suf- 
fered to form. 

I trust you are all aware that with respect to young la- 
dies who enjoy your advantages, bad spelling cannot be tol- 
erated. This would not only be disgraceful to yourselves, 
but to the institution to which you belong. Some may 
feel that they are too old, and have too much to do to join 
the class in dictation, who are yet conscious that they are 
deficient in spelling. To such, a dictionary must be a con- 
stant writing companion. Yet should you, after all your 
care, have the mortification of seeing your compositions 
returned from the teachers with the spelling corrected, 
let me recommend to you to make a memorandum of the 
words misspelt, with their true orthography, so that you 
may be sure of not committing the same error the second 
time.* I have known pupils acquire such an inveterate 
habit of misspelling certain words, that after frequent cor- 
rections, their compositions would continue to exhibit the 
same mistakes ; this is not only careless in the extreme, 
but disrespectful, showing that neither self-interest, or 
a regard to her teacher,, operates in the mind of one 
who is thus, after repeated admonition, guilty of the same 
fault. 

There are some words of irregular orthography, which 
many are liable to mistake ; as receive, in which the e pre- 
cedes i, contrary to more frequent usage, as in friend, be- 
lieve, &c. where e follows i. Words which take an addi- 
tional syllable in respect to doubling the final letter ; from 
permit, we have permitted, while from visit we have 
visited. The rule for doubling the t in the first case, and 
not in the second, is that in permit the accent is on the 

* In making out such a list of words, only the correct mode of 
spelling should be copied;. If the false orthography is set by the 
side of the true, the person will always be in doubt as to the right 
way ; for by the principle of association the one is no less readily 
suggested than the other. 



ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 79 

last syllable, and in visit, on the first ; it being a general 
rule, that a word ending with a consonant, and having the 
last syllable accented, doubles the consonant on the ad- 
dition of another syllable, while a word ending with a 
consonant and not having the accent on the last syllable, 
does not double the final consonant. 

A few rules for spelling should be written in your 
memorandum book ; for dictionaries will not assist you in 
the case of many derivative words. Thus, from the primi- 
tive word holy come the degrees of comparison holier, ho- 
liest ; but if the y at the end of a word have not a conso- 
nant before it, it is not changed into i on the addition 
of another syllable, as from joy is derived joyful. 

Connected with the subject of spelling, is that of the 
sounds and powers of letters. With modern im- 
provements in education, there is a neglect of some parti- 
culars which were more thoroughly attended to when 
many fountains of knowledge were sealed, which are now 
open to the young student. Formerly the introduction to 
Webster's Spelling Book, containing in some three or four 
pages, rules for accent, the sounds of letters, &c, fur- 
nished matter for months of study. Although we would 
not wish to bring back those barren days of education, it 
cannot be denied that the scarcity of school books ensured 
a more thorough knowledge of some of the elementary 
branches. 

I have sometimes found, to my great surprise, a young 
lady quick to comprehend mathematical truths, who 
knew something of Latin, and was perhaps a proficient in 
French, puzzled to tell the difference between accent 
and emphasis, or to give a rule for pronouncing g Yikej 
in giant, and with a hard sound in go, or for giving c diff- 
erent sounds in cedar and cable. 

There is in the study of articulate sounds and the powers 
of letters, much deep philosophy ; and whoever thinks it 
beneath attention, little understands its importance or diffi- 
culties. It is easy to tell the difference between a vowel 
and consonant, a mute and a semivowel; but to" understand 
fully the nature of articulation, we must study the various 
modifications which the air sent out by the lungs, is ca- 
pable of, in order to produce the wonderful variety of 
sounds within the compass of the human voice. 



80 ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 

Dr. Paley observes, ' the lungs are to animal utterance 
what the bellows are to the organ ; they are air vessls 
which become inflated and then collapsed as the air is in- 
spired or expired.' You can perceive that in respiration 
the chest alternately expands and contracts. This mo- 
tion is caused by the action of the lungs, which are two 
spongy lobes, or divisions suspended in the chest, being 
connected with the trachea, or wind-pipe at the upper 
part. The air which enters the lungs is received into the 
minute cavities of which they are composed ; these are 
called air cells. We cannot at this time describe the 
manner in which the air is expelled from the lungs, the 
effect of respiration upon the blood, and the motion, of the 
heart caused by the constant rushing of the blood from this 
to the lungs and from the lungs to the heart, with the 
change that takes place in the nature of the blood after 
coming in contact with the'oxygen of the air, which is in- 
haled by the lungs ; though all this is easily explained and 
comprehended. 

At present we are only to consider the lungs in refer- 
ence to their office in furnishing the air necessary for ar- 
ticulating sounds. This air passes back through the 
windpipe, which is that tube that we can feel externally 
to be composed of cartilaginous rings. The top of the 
windpipe is called the larynx ; at the upper part of this, 
and behind the tongue, is the glottis, a very small open- 
ing through which the breath and voice are conveyed. 
It is in the passage of the air through this minute aper- 
ture that articulate sounds are formed. By means of va- 
rious muscles or threads, which draw in different direc- 
tions, the glottis is susceptible of many degrees of expan- 
sion, and it is by varying this cavity that the different 
vowels are sounded. The air in passing a large cavity, 
produces a low or flat sound, through a small cavity, a 
high or sharp sound. This may be seen in the vowels 
a, e, i, o, u, which proceed in regular order from low and 
flat to high and sharp sounds. 

Oral language, or speech, consists of articulate sounds ; 
brutes utter various inarticulate sounds, expressive of 
their peculiar feelings. The cat when quietly reposing by 
the parlor fire, expresses her satisfaction by a gentle pur- 



READING. 81 

ring ; when her capricious little mistress amuses herself 
by "tormenting her, she vents her sorrows in piteous mew- 
ing ; and when roused to anger by the cruelty of the 
dog, she growls her indignation. Mankind also have 
means of expressing violent emotions by inarticulate 
sounds, as by laughing, crying, or screaming. But it is 
only by articulate sounds and their representatives, that 
intercourse can be satisfactorily carried on between ra- 
tional minds ; these are the links which bind together our 
spirits — they are wings by whose means the soul is borne 
from its corporeal prison to unite in the interchange of 
thought and feeling with kindred souls. 

May this gift of a bountiful Creator never be perverted 
by you, my dear pupils, to unworthy purposes ; may your 
words be a true index of your hearts, pure, gentle and 
kind. A deceitful world may tell you that falsehood 
and dissimulation are necessary, but believe it not. True 
politeness js] consistent with sincerity or singleness of 
heart, and if you once lose this, and commence a system 
of duplicity your \vhole lives may become a tissue of ar- 
tifice and hypocrisy. Let your hearts be pure, and you 
need not fear to have their true image reflected to the 
world. He who gave you the power of language, adapt- 
ing your bodily organs in so wonderful and complicated 
a manner to this object, requires that you order your 
speech in sincerity and wisdom. 



LECTURE VIII. 

Reading. 



If God had formed us for solitude, he would not have 
given us the wish to converse with other minds ; or if, 
like brutes, we had been irrational, we should not have 
needed language. Speech peculiarly distinguishes man 
from the other living beings on earth. 

The word language is derived from the Latin lingua, 



82 READING. 

tongue, and originally signified only the communication 
of ideas by articulate sounds. Its signification is now 
extended not only to the communication of ideas by 
writing, but we speak of the language of the passions, as 
expressed by various natural signs. The division which 
is generally made of language is into oral * and written. 
The sciences which have an especial relation to language, 
considered as an instrument of conveying those thoughts, 
are grammar, rhetoric, logic and criticism. Grammar 
teaches us to arrange words, answerably to certain rules 
of agreement and government ; rhetoric teaches the use 
of figurative language, and gives directions for attaining 
clearness and precision in style ; logic teaches the meth- 
od of arranging words in a certain manner, in order to 
establish the truth or falsehood of propositions ; criticism 
teaches on what principles of the mind depend our tastes 
for various kinds of style, and brings to the test of those 
principles the writings of various authors. All other 
sciences are communicated by means of language, but 
these have for their object language »itself, or in other 
words, in these sciences language is not only the instru- 
ment with which the operation is carried on, but the ob- 
ject upon which it is performed. 

Before proceeding to consider the principles on which 
language is founded, we will make some remarks upon 
reading, which is the next step to spelling, in the scale 
of literary knowledge ; indeed modern education usually 
proceeds with both at the same time, not waiting for a 
child to be able to spell words of several syllables, before 
he is allowed to experience the new emotions connected 
with an exercise which brings the thoughts of others to 
him when he is alone, and opens to him a new and de- 
lightful source of enjoyment. As soon as a child knows 
its alphabet, it can be taught that m y spell my, and that 
cat spell cat ; he can then put the words together and 
read, my cat. In a short time he can be taught to read 
little stories composed of words of one syllable, and from 
this, the transition is easy to words of more than one syl- 
lable. 

* From os, oris, the mouth. 



READING. 



83 



It is but a few years since teaching a child to read 
was a very different process from this. The little mar- 
tyr in commencing his education, was sent to school to 
be confined for many long hours in the day, upon a hard 
seat, with only the occasional change of being called up 
for a few minutes to say his letters. The alphabet pre- 
sented was often in a small, obscure type, and printed on 
bad paper. The teacher pointing to the letters, pro- 
nounced their names, requiring the child to repeat them 
after him. This becoming an exercise wholly mechanical, 
day after day passed bringing the poor child apparently 
no nearer the completion of the formidable task of learn- 
ing its letters. From the principle of association he be- 
comes able to call one letter after another when they are 
presented in regular order; but taken separately and in 
any other place than the accustomed column of letters, 
they are as unintelligible as Hebrew or Greek charac- 
ters. I have known children of good abilities tortured 
for months and even years in this absurd and stupifying 
method of teaching ; and when the teacher, in despair, has 
put them upon spelling, the work has been found to be 
accomplished ; as a few exercises of this kind connect 
in the child's mind the form with the sound of the let- 
ters. 

But here again the child's progress is interrupted by 
the mistaken idea, that before beginning to read, he 
must be able to spell words of several syllables. He 
reads abasement, ambiguity and cotemporary, with a mind 
entirely vacant of thought ; indeed, he is not aware that 
the words have any meaning, or any other use than to 
fill the columns in his spelling book. The reading les- 
sons first presented were often dry and abstract proposi- 
tions, wholly beyond the comprehension of any child, 
even one whose mental powers had been properly culti- 
vated. In the most popular spelling book* which has 
been in use for the last half century in our common 
schools, the first lessons in reading are of this nature. 
There are, however, in the book, some things of a differ- 
ent kind ; and the story of the ' old man who found a rude 

* Webster's. 



84 READING. 

boy upon one of his trees stealing apples/ is perused by 
the young student with great delight, for the simple rea- 
son, that he can understand it. 

The method of infant school education affords a pleas- 
ing contrast to that just described. Knowledge is here 
made easy and pleasant; the intellectual faculties are 
roused by objects addressed to the senses. Pictures with 
their names attached are presented to the children ; and 
in deciphering these names, they learn to consider words 
as representatives of things. In process of time, it is easy 
for them to learn that words may also be the representa- 
tives of ideas. 

The different manner in which children read, who are 
taught by these two processes is apparent. A child un- 
accustomed to consider written language as the sign for 
things and ideas, or to read without knowledge or inter- 
est, would have no idea of emphasis or intonations. The 
habit of reading mechanically once formed, is with dif- 
ficulty broken, even after the development of reason, and 
the cultivation of taste exhibits written characters as kin- 
dled by the fire of genius, or glowing with the most im- 
passioned feeling. 

To early defects in education, we must attribute the 
fact, that there are among us, few good readers. There 
are many requisites for good reading, besides early hab- 
its. It requires not only knowledge of language, of the 
derivation and signification of words, but an acquaint- 
ance with the passions of the human heart, and with the 
different tones in which they should be expressed. It re- 
quires also a quick conception to seize upon the meaning 
of a passage, so that for the moment, the author's spirit 
shall seem to be transferred to the breast of the reader. 
All this is necessary in order to read well ; is it there- 
fore wonderful that there are so few good readers 1 How 
common is it to hear a pathetic passage read with an air 
of indifference, and without the slightest intonation of the 
voice, a lively description without animation, or an argu- 
mentative discourse without emphasis or force. 

Rules for reading may do something, example may do 
much ; but after all, good reading must be the effect of 
feeling, taste and information. You can understand, 



READING. 85 

that, important as this attainment is, it is dependent on 
almost every other branch of education. By the general 
improvement of your minds, therefore, can you be ex- 
pected to arrive at that perfection in this accomplish- 
ment, which a well educated woman ought to exhibit. 

It is not unusual for parents on committing their 
daughters to our care, to express a wish that they may be- 
come good readers, before they proceed to other branches 
of education. But reason and experience pronounce it 
impossible for an ignorant person to read well; such an 
one may acquire an habit of calling words correctly, of 
minding stops and marks, and observing all the artificial 
rules for reading, but the soul will be wanting ! — I would 
rather hear a person read, who did not even know that a 
comma was a pause of one syllable and a semicolon two, 
and yet could comprehend an author's meaning, and ap- 
ply the rules which nature suggests, than one who had 
acquired a servile habit of applying arbitrary rules, 
without taste or feeling. Not that I would have you 
disregard rules, but you should remember that they 
have been suggested by nature, as that the sense of 
a passage, and not its punctuation, should guide your read- 
ing. Nothing is more common than errors in printing, 
by which, owing to the misplacing of a comma, or other 
pause, the sense of a sentence is destroyed. You must 
then learn to judge for yourselves where the sense requires 
a pause ; and as to emphasis and intonations, they must 
absolutely be left to your own judgement. In selecting 
passages to read before the school,* let me advise you 
never to begin with any thing you do not well understand. 
A knowledge of languages, particularly the Latin and 
French, is of great use in assisting a reader in the pro- 
nunciation of words derived from foreign sources. 

This however is not an occasion for particular di- 
rections as to your improvement in reading ; the in- 
structions which you are receiving! in this branch, 

* On Wednesdays a certain number of pupils read before the 
whole school pieces of their own selection. 

t The excellent treatise on elocution, by Porter, is made a text 
book for reading exercises and instructions. 

8 



86 READING. 

added to your general course of education can scarcely 
fail of giving you this accomplishment. Some ladies 
have appeared to think it unfeminine to read or speak 
in an audible manner, affecting a low and lisping tone, 
probably from the idea that this is an indication of a gen- 
tle and delicate spirit ; but I trust you have all too much 
taste and good sense, not to feel how false and ridiculous 
are such notions of female delicacy. The time has gone 
by, when it was necessary for a female to seem ignorant 
or childish in order to be interesting. Women are now 
looked upon as rational beings, endowed with faculties 
capable of improvement, and bound in duty to as- 
sume a hiah rank in the scale of intelligence. Even 
beauty has learned, that connected with ignorance and 
folly, she must give precedence to the plainest features 
irradiated with intelligence and good sense. I speak 
not now of a ball or a fashionable party, where ex- 
ternal appearance chiefly is regarded, but of the great 
theatre of human life, where character developes itself, 
and where all find their own proper level, intellect and 
morals being the graduating scale. 

I shall close this lecture by a quotation from an au- 
thor,* who has done much for the education, and has 
ever shown himself interested in the improvement of our 
sex. ' Elocution is not sufficiently attended to, in the 
course of female education. I know, great improvements 
have been made of late, in this respect, but much yet 
remains to be done. It is not enough that a young lady 
should be taught to read with a correct pronunciation, 
and emphasis, and without any palpable fault. She 
should be taught to enter into the feelings of the author ; 
and to make the hearers feel as if he was really address- 
ing them. One very striking fault in the reading of ma- 
ny persons is, that they do not adapt their manner to the 
peculiar character of the composition, but always read 
in one uniform style. Perhaps there are some reasons 
why young ladies are in danger of doing this more than 
the other sex ; or rather, why it is more difficult, in their 
case, to remedy this defect. Their reading is confined 

* Gallaudet. 



READING. 87 

to the fire-side, and to the domestic circle ; and ther6 
seems to be, therefore, less of inducement for them to aim 
at the life, and variety, and force, so essential in public 
speaking. Still, these, and every other good quality of 
the most eloquent delivery, ought to bold a high rank 
among female accomplishments. I cannot understand, 
why it should be thought, as it sometimes is, a departure 
from female delicacy to read in a promiscuous, social cir- 
cle, if called upon to do so from any peculiar circumstan- 
ces; and to read, too, as well as Garrick himself would 
have done, if the young lady possessed the power of do- 
ing it. Why may she not do this with as much genuine 
modesty, and with as much desire to oblige her friends, 
and with as little ostentation, as to sit down, in the same 
circle, to the piano, and play and sing in the style of the 
first masters'? If to do the former is making too much 
of a display of her talents, why should not the latter be 
so ? Nothing but some strange freaks of fashion have 
made the difference. But, at any rate, amid her family 
anl friends, to how many otherwise, tedious, or useless, 
hours of life, may a. female impart both delight and im- 
provement by the charm of reading well. If a wife, she 
can solace many a season of a husband's weariness or 
sickness. If a mother, what an advantage to her off- 
spring, to have before them, as they are growing up, a 
living model, in the person of one whom they are led to 
reverence and love, of an accomplishment which our 
schools, and academies, and colleges, find it so difficult 
to impart. This latter consideration, in my view, has 
immense weight ; for our habits of pronunciation, speak- 
ing, and reading, are first formed in childhood, and in 
the domestic circle ; and being once formed, it is a task 
of extreme difficulty to alter them.' 

It has been observed that a person may have genius 
without being a good reader, but no one can be a good 
reader without genius. When you find how many are 
the requisites for this accomplishment, you will learn not 
to esteem it lightly, or as a thing which may be gained 
in childhood, but one towards whose perfection all the 
different branches of knowledge tend. If you were 
called upon to give a preference either to reading or 



88 GRAMMAR. 

music, I hope you would all prefer returning to your 
friends perfected in the former rather than the latter ac- 
complishment ; for although music is a refined and in- 
tellectual enjoyment, the occasions for it in ordinary 
life, are far less frequent than for reading aloud. In all 
the pursuits of youth this should ever be the main object 
of inquiry, What attainments will render me most useful 
and agreeable to others, and tend most to my own eleva- 
tion and happiness 1 



LECTURE VIII. 

Grammar. 



It is not until after a child has learned to use nouns, 
verbs, prepositions, and other parts of speech, that he 
knows them as such ; in other words, he becomes famil- 
iar with language before he learns its philosophy. So it 
is with much of our knowledge ; we are conversant with 
the subjects, before we understand their natures. 

The mechanic becomes familiar with the use of the pul- 
ley, wedge and inclined plane, and is able to perform various 
operations by their aid, without knowing any thing of 
mechanical philosophy. We exercise our various mental 
faculties, reason, remember, and compare, long before 
we are able to comprehend the nature of these operations. 

Language was not formed according to the rules of 
grammar, but grammar was made to conform itself to those 
forms of language which had previously been established. 
A child learns to speak without knowing anything of the 
rules of grammar ; and people ignorant of the principles 
and rules of language, are often able to write with toler- 
able accuracy. Such persons, however, feel their own 
deficiency in this respect ; they know that they are contin- 
ually liable to errors. A mariner might chance to steer 
his bark aright without a compass, but he would feel 
much more secure if provided with the means of as- 
certaining the correctness of his course. 



GRAMMAR. 89 

Man perceiving effects, is led to trace them to their 
causes, though in this process he often proceeds by 
slow degrees. God views the first as "first; that is, 
causes, and the effects following them. Human na- 
ture must be satisfied to advance from the more im- 
perfect and complex, to the more perfect and simple; 
for in general, objects are first familiar to us as complex. 
A child can readily understand this proposition, — the 
sun shines ; but it requires study and reflection to be 
able to analyze it into an article, a noun, and a verb; 
to separate these again into syllables, the syllables into 
letters, and then to explain the difference in the sounds 
and powers of these letters. The lowest human beings in 
the scale of knowledge, (with the exception of the deaf 
and dumb,) have some kind of spoken language. Many 
savage tribes know nothing of written language. In our 
country there are, however, few so ignorant as not to know 
how to read and write ; but there are many who know 
nothing of grammar, or those rules and principles on 
which their own language is founded ; and there are 
still fewer who comprehend those broad and general 
principles of grammar, which are common to all lan- 
guages, and make up the science of universal gram- 
mar. 

No person can be considered as having a liberal educa- 
tion, who has not studied, at least one language besides 
his own ; and yet there are pedantic grammarians, who, 
with no other knowledge than that gained from the 
study of the English language, assume to understand 
the principles on which it is founded, and to be able to 
give rules for every doubtful case in parsing : more 
knowledge of the intricacies of language would teach 
such, that the English being composed of a mixture of 
other languages, on principles common to them, and yet 
in many cases essentially varying from these principles, 
necessarily presents many irregularities ; instead, there- 
fore, of attempting to prove all cases to be conformable 
to rules, we must often cut the gordian knot, by admitting 
a case to be anomalous, or sanctioned only by cus- 
tom. 

8* 



90 GRAMMAR. 

The study of languages, then, besides affording an ex« 
cellent discipline for the mind, and presenting new and 
rich sources of knowledge, is important in teaching the 
principles of our own language. But all cannot enjoy 
the opportunities necessary for this acquisition ; many 
enter this institution restricted to a few months, during 
which it is desirable that they should make such attain- 
ments as will be most important in after life. It would 
be absurd for a person to attempt to lay a broad founda- 
tion, knowing that he should never be able to erect a su- 
perstructure upon it. 

A young lady having merely received the rudiments 
of an English education, as afforded by a common 
school, and who is allowedd, for six months or a year, 
the advantage of a higher school, should not be encour- 
aged to attempt more than she can accomplish within 
the allotted period. The higher branches of education, 
and the accomplishments of music, drawing, &c, should 
not take the place of grammar, geography, arithmetic, 
and history. The natural sciences, are within the reach 
of every one, who can count the stamens of a flower, can 
see the difference between quartz and mica, or can 
observe the different properties of oxygen and nitrogen. 
In these sciences, every lecture is exhibiting nature in a 
new aspect, and storing the mind with facts and observa- 
tions which will be useful and interesting in every 
station and under every circumstance of life. 

English grammar is becoming a very common study. 
It is now almost universally taught in our common 
schools, and constitutes one of the earliest, as well 
as the latest pursuits of all classes of students. It 
has its simple distinctions which can be understood by 
the child, and it contains subtleties which elude the 
grasp of the strongest and most mature intellect. 

In the former and less improved state of education, a 
pupil commencing the study of grammar, was required 
to commit to memory page after page of principles, 
rules and exceptions : these he was required to repeat 
before commencing the important process of parsing. 
In some cases, teachers continued to keep their pupils 



GRAMMAR. 91 

to the recitation of grammar lessons, concealing their 
own want of knowledge of the science, by pretend- 
ing that it was necessary to understand every word 
of their book before they could begin to make an 
application of its principles and rules. Other teachers 
there were, who really believed that this repeating by 
rote constituted the whole mystery of the science, and 
doubted not but in hearing their pupils recite, they were 
teaching grammar in the most profitable manner. 

Since those days of grammatical darkness and error, 
books have been prepared on new principles of teaching, 
and the inductive method has been generally adopt- 
ed.* Here the pupil begins at once to distinguish 
a sentence into its different parts. Rules are not pre- 
sented until the mind is led to perceive their applica- 
tion. There is, however, still a tendency to a great fault 
in both the teaching and learning of grammar ; this is, 
to make parsing the ultimate object, instead of the 
application of grammatical rules to writing and con- 
versation. 

We do not often hear people say / is, you am, fyc. 
But ladies who claim to be well educated not unfre- 
quently say ' I will lay down,' using the word lay, which 
is the past tense of the verb to lie, as if it were the future. 
We often hear adjectives improperly used as adverbs, as 
* she looks beautiful,' instead of beautifully. Will is used 
for shall, as ' / will not have time ; ' the improper use of 
these two auxiliaries is well illustrated in the anecdote 
of the foreigner, who falling into a river, piteously 
exclaimed, 1 1 mill drown, nobody shall help me.' That 
foreigners should thus mistake the power of two words 
so analogous in many respects, is not strange; but those 

* No elementary work has probably been of greater general 
utility than ' Grccnleafs Grammar Simplified.'' The teacher who 
is ignorant, of the science, cannot but be made acquainted with it 
by the simple and easy manner in which parsing, or the analyti- 
cal part of grammar is taught. A smaller work on the same 
principles has been prepared by Mr. Greenleaf, with the inten- 
tion of having it afforded at so low a rate as may enable even the 
poorest scholar of a common school to possess a copy. Brown's 
and Kirkham's grammars are valuable for more advanced pupils. 



92 GRAMMAR. 

who study the English grammar should apply in practice 
their knowledge, that shall used in the first person, 
singular, simply foretels, while will, in the same person 
and number, implies a resolution or determination. 

It is necessary then that you should bear in mind 
that parsing, and learning rules, are mechanical and 
useless, unless you make the application of these 
exercises, to writing and conversation. The slightest 
offence against grammatical accuracy should be avoided 
by people of education, and yet such offences are much 
more common than you may at first imagine. The 
substituting which for who, the use of the perfect for 
the imperfect tense, or the imperfect for the pluper* 
feet, the improper use of the potential mode, &c. give 
rise to errors, which though not of the grossest kind, 
are yet quickly perceived by a philologist. Perhaps 
I have here used a term not familiar to all of you ; I will 
therefore observe that philology is derived from the 
Greek phileo, I love, and logos, a word, and signifies a 
love for, or a knowledge of words. According to the 
present acceptation of the term, philology implies a criti- 
cal knowledge of language, considered both rhetorically 
and gramctically. To be a philologist requires a higher 
effort of mind, a more enlarged view of language than to 
be a grammarian. But in order to be a grammarian, it 
is not sufficient that you should be able to parse 
sentences in that kind of parrot-like manner which 
is often acquired ; you must be able to perceive the 
meaning of an author, the connexion between the words 
of a sentence, however distant, and to supply words 
in elliptical cases. Some of the English poets are pecu- 
liar, for their great use of ellipsis, some especially, in 
the expression of sudden passion, leaving not one word 
merely, but several, to be supplied by the reader. 

A fashion has too much prevailed among you of consid- 
ering English grammar as a study only proper for young- 
er pupils, and some have exhioited a degree of impa- 
tince at being occasionally called upon to devote some 
time to the review of this science. But no young lady 
need fear that grammar can present to her nothing new, 
or that one hour in a week devoted to the analysis of 



GRAMMAR. 93 

English poetry, will not afford her an opportunity for 
intellectual exertion. 

You may say, ' If grammar requires deep thought, why 
are children so early put to the study of it?' We would 
answer, that there are simple truths in this science which 
children can soon comprehend, as the distinction be- 
tween the parts of speech ; they can readily understand 
the nature of a noun, and this knowledge gives them 
many new ideas. We tell them that every tiling in ex- 
istence is a noun, all that they can see, hear, touch, 
smell, or taste, are nouns ; at first, it might seem to them 
that no other words would be necessary but the names of 
these things ; but of the names of real objects in nature, 
how small a part of our vocabulary of words consists. 
The child soon learns that we must have words to ex- 
press actions done to, or done by these things which we 
call nouns, and thus the mind can readily comprehend 
that there may be words which do not stand for things, 
but relate to their manner of acting, or their state of ex- 
istence, and that these words are called verbs. It is easy 
also for a child to understand that these things called 
nouns have different qualities; as fire is hot, snow is 
white; that one person is good, and another bad, and 
that the words denoting these qualities are called adjec- 
tives, which means words added to nouns. Thus you 
observe the young mind, by the study of grammar, is led 
to form an idea of things or material objects, of actions 
or modes of existence, and of qualities which do not ex- 
ist of themselves but are inseparable from the things in 
which they are found. Now all this is philosophy, but it 
may be easily comprehended by a child old enough to 
understand the difference between two and four. 

Thus simple are the elements of grammar. But it 
contains divisions and subdivisions, exceptions to general 
rules, and exceptions differently modified ; so that, as be- 
fore remarked, while children can understand its ele- 
ments, the philosopher is lost in its intricacies. While 
employed in this study, you are giving exercise to your 
mental powers, invigorating them for new labors, and at 
the same time are gaining knowledge, which will be 
called into use with every sentence you speak or write. 



94 



GRAMMAR. 



It is very important that those who are preparing them- 
selves for teachers, should obtain a thorough knowledge 
of English grammar. In correcting the inaccuracies in 
spoken and written language, a teacher should not only 
be able to point out defects, but the rules which are vio- 
lated. 

In concluding my remarks upon a branch of educa- 
tion so important, and yet, through inattention and care- 
lessness, so often pursued with little advantage, let me 
admonish you against that mental indolence which fre- 
quently defeats the efforts of parents ana* teachers. 
Knowledge cannot, like houses and lands, be purchased 
by money. All that your parents or teachers can do, 
is to place within your reach the instruments of ac- 
quiring it ; if you refuse to use them, if your minds are 
not active, to observe, compare, and remember, it will be 
in vain that you are placed in situations where facilities 
for improvement are offered. Books and lectures are of 
no avail to that mind which is too inert to rouse itself into 
action, and seize the truths which are exhibited. There 
is in the mind a tendency to sloth, but it also con- 
tains principles which counteract this love of ease. 
Of these are a desire for knowledge, an ambition 
to excel, and in many persons the higher moral mo- 
tive of cultivating the talents committed to their charge, 
from a sense of duty to God. But these incitements to 
action are sometimes feeble ; how often are the minds 
of some pupils slumbering in a torpid inactivity, while 
others are exerting all the energies of their faculties to 
impart instruction to them ; how often is the listless eye 
fixed in vacancy of thought upon some trifling object, or 
the mind wandering on some past pleasure, or anticipat- 
ing some future enjoyment, while their teachers, with in- 
tense anxiety to discharge their high responsibilities, are 
exerting all their powers to explain something which they 
feared might not be understood, or to communicate such 
knowledge as the pupil will need in her future progress in 
life. Would not a spectator, ignorant of the truth, sup- 
pose that the teacher, and not themselves, was to be the 
gainer by their attention ? 



ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 95 

I have read of a certain professor,* who always lec- 
tured to one particular student, regulating his dis- 
courses by his appearance : when lie looked as if he 
did not comprehend the subject, the professor per- 
ceived that his explanation had not been clear, and 
endeavored to illustrate his ideas more fully ; when 
the student's countenance was illumined with the glow 
of intelligence, the professor knew that he was under- 
stood, and that his instructions had taken effect. How 
many different expressions do I at this moment behold 
before me ! How many youthful countenances, lighted 
up by the spirit within, animate me in the discharge of 
my duties ! 

Would that all of you could realize the importance of 
this present season of preparation for your future lives. 
The scriptures point out two classes of people, the wise 
and the foolish. Though intellectual gifts are not al- 
ways most conspicuous in the most virtuous, it is gener- 
ally the case that the latter more assiduously seek to 
make a suitable improvement of advantages afforded 
them. In every large collection of human beings assem- 
bled for the purpose of instruction, we are struck by con- 
trasts ; some seek to know the truth and to learn their 
duty, while others, alas, too many, appear forgetful of 
the momentous interests which hang upon the present 
moment. Have we not reason to believe that these 
will at last be found among those to whom it will be 
said, ' Depart from me ; ye have chosen your own 
ways, ye have loved pleasure rather than wisdom.' 



LECTURE X. 

Ancient Languages. 

In proceeding to consider the study of the ancient 
languages, I would wish you to understand that I do not 
recommend them, except where circumstances permit a 

* Professor Jardine, of Edinburgh. 



96 ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 

liberal course of education. You will recollect the re- 
marks on this subject in our last lecture, and will not 
therefore be likely to imbibe the mistaken idea, that all 
young ladies are called upon to become Latin and Greek 
scholars, or even to attempt acquiring the rudiments of 
any other language than their own. 

It is the pride of this institution, that the daughter of 
the most humble mechanics and farmers, and of the wealth- 
iest and most powerful of our citizens, here meet on 
terms of equality, except as virtue and talents make a 
distinction. Our country is probably the only one in the 
world which exhibits such a scene. In England, the 
nobility would feel it a degradation to have their daugh- 
ters educated in common with the untitled. The gentry 
who may not aspire to mingle with the nobility, still re* 
coil from plebeian contamination. In the English univer- 
sities, it is true, all may find admittance who are suitably 
qualified for entrance, but the sons of the nobility have 
their peculiar privileges. The commoners are not per- 
mitted to eat with them, and by this and various other 
distinctions are constantly reminded of their own infe- 
riority. 

Unfortunate state of things, when the one class, be- 
ing led to feel that rank alone can give elevation, are 
thus deprived of an important stimulus to mental effort, 
and the other, depressed by the abjectness of their 
situation, can scarcely hope, by the greatest efforts, to 
rise sbove the sphere in which they find themselves 
placed ! 

In our country, in female as well as male institutions, 
these things are different. We know of no hereditary 
claims to respect, which can set aside the superior claims 
of merit ; and if the attempt is made to render any 
school in our country of an exclusive character, it must, 
from the very genius of our government, and the nature 
of our institutions, prove as abortive as it is ridicu- 
lous. 

Some may indeed, from a desire of this exclusiveness , 
pay such extravagant demands for the education of their 
daughters as cannot be afforded by persons of moderate 
fortunes ; but the children thus educated will be obliged 



ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 97 

when they come forth into the world, to run the race of 
life by the side of those, who, having been inured to 
competition, are strengthened and prepared for the con- 
test. When distanced in this race, and left to see their 
despised inferiors far before them, it will but add to their 
chagrin, that they had once been flattered with the idea 
of possessing peculiar advantages. 

I have perhaps digressed too far from the subject of this 
lecture, but it has been to show you that although a dif- 
ferent course of study may be recommended to pupils 
under different circumstances, we hold to principles 
congenial with the spirit of our republican government. 

Mankind must act according to existing circumstances, 
and prospects which are at the time being presented. In 
accordance with these views, I must advise you to such 
studies and pursuits as now seem most likely to be use- 
ful to you in after life. And yet we well know that 
appearances may be illusory. Many a piano and harp 
have been destined to an auction sale, while their accom- 
plished mistresses have been forced to exchange elegant 
houses and furniture for the coarsest accommodations. 
On the other hand those who never aspired to any ac- 
complishments, whose minds have been only adorned with 
plain good sense ; and this perhaps little cultivated, are 
by an unexpected combination of circumstances, brought 
forward into high and conspicuous stations. But notwith- 
standing the possibility of these reverses, the present sta- 
tion and the pecuniary means of the parent must regulate 
the education of the child. 

When the situation of a parent allows the opportunity 
of a liberal course of study, I consider that the languages 
should form the basis of education : that girls as well as 
boys should be put to the study of Latin as soon as they 
are able to read intelligibly.* A child of six or seven 

* I am aware that this is a controverted point ; but I believe 
that persons engaged in education are becoming more confirmed 
in their opinions, in favor of giving to young females some know- 
ledge of the ancient languages. Mr. Emerson's lecture on Fe- 
male Education, delivered before the American Institute of In- 
struction, contains some excellent and judicious remarks on this 
subject. 



98 ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 

years of age can learn the conjugations of verbs, the de- 
clensions of nouns, pronouns and adjectives. The 
memory at this age is active and retentive, and if the 
other mental powers are at the same time cultivated, 
there will be no danger of their suffering by the efforts 
of this. 

The exercise of translating from one language to 
another, calls up the powers of comparison and abstrac- 
tion, quickens the imagination, matures the judgment, 
and gives enlarged views of the general principles of 
language. 

In addition to the utility of the study of Latin in the 
discipline of the mind, we must count among one of its 
important advantages, the facilities which it gives for the 
attainment of those modern languages which are deriv- 
ed from it. Our own language, has borrowed much from 
the Latin. The Saxon was the language of England 
when that country was subdued by the Romans under 
Julius Caesar. Like all conquered nations the English 
gradually suffered a change in their language, and thus 
the language of the Romans became incorporated with 
that of the Saxons; and in process of time, the Danish 
and Norman conquests effected still greater changes. 

The Latin language, like the character of the people 
by whom it was spoken, is forcible and majestic. Among 
its most distinguished prose writers were Cicero, Tacitus, 
Sallust, Livy and Caesar ; its most celebrated poets were 
Horace, Ovid and Virgil. This language is still used 
by the Roman Catholics in their public prayers, and is 
spoken familiary by the learned of Europe, particularly 
in Germany. 

An elegant writer,* observes, ' there is not a single 
language of modern Europe, in which literature has 
made any considerable advances, which is not directly of 
Roman origin, or has not incorporated into its very 
structure many of the idioms and peculiarities of the 
ancient tongues. The English language affords strong 
illustration of the truth of this remark. It abounds 
with words and meanings drawn from classical sources, 

* Judge Story. 



ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 99 

Innumerable plirases retain the symmetry of their 
ancient dress. Innumerable expressions have received 
their vivid tints from the beautiful dyes of Roman and 
Grecian roots.' 

The same writer, remarking upon the rich treasures 
of ancient literature, and the idea that these can be 
conveyed to the mind through the medium of transla- 
tions, says, ' these may be read in our vernacular tongue 
— aye, as one remembers the face of a dear friend, 
by gathering up the broken fragments of his image, 
— as one listens to the tale of a dream well told, — as 
one catches the wave of the ocean in the ripple of a 
rivulet, — as one sees the blaze of noon in the first glim- 
mer of the twilight.' 

It is not however to be expected that among the 
many pursuits to which the female mind must be direct- 
ed, and with the comparatively short period which is 
allowed them for education, that many young ladies will 
acquire that facility in reading Latin which is necessary 
to the enjoyment of its classical literature. But a know- 
ledge of the principles on which this noble language is 
constructed, and a limited acquaintance with its beauties 
are invaluable. 

Why should these be denied to us merely because we 
are women? I know it has been customary among 
many to ridicule the idea of females pursuing what 
are called masculine studies. The excellent and wise 
Hannah More was so intimidated by this, that in her 
CJcelebs she makes her heroine dread the discovery of 
her studying Latin, as if it were a crime, and over- 
whelms her with blushes and confusion when the se- 
cret is revealed. 

When such occurrences shall no longer be rare, then 
will they cease to excite astonishment, and females may 
be allowed to read Virgil, or even Homer, as undisturb- 
edly as if they were working lace or embroidering 
muslin. 

In some essays on female education ascribed to her 
ladyship the Countess of Carlisle, I find the following 
remarks : ' As for Homer and Virgil, I fancy you must 
foe content to taste these as pure as the labors of the 



100 ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 

learned afford them; the Greek and Latin tongues 
forming no part in the polite system of female education 
at present, nor certainly ever can in the useful.' It is 
probable that had her ladyship been permitted to test 
the utility of these studies by experience, she might have 
judged differently ; she would probably have gained from 
them a better knowledge of the construction of English 
sentences than is exhibited in the preceding quotation, 
some parts of which it would certainly puzzle a gramma- 
rian to parse according to any rules of the English gram- 
mar. It is a little surprising that she should have deci- 
ded so positively on this subject, especially as she had 
observed in a preceding sentence, that ' it is a property 
of ignorance to esteem nothing valuable that it does not 
comprehend.' 

Before dismissing the subject of the Latin language, 
it may be profitable to those of you, who have recently 
commenced in this study, to receive a few general direc- 
tions for translating and parsing.* 

In translating Latin into English, 

1. Find what is the nominative case or subject of the verb. 

2. Find the words which belong to the noun or subject of the 
sentence ; these words are sometimes adjectives, which in English 
are usually placed before tbe noun ; but in Latin are often placed 
after, and sometimes separated by many intervening words from 
the noun to which they belong. It is the agreement of adjectives 
to their nouns, in number, gender and case, which enables us to 
ascertain to which of the nouns in a sentence they belong. It 
may be observed, as there are no words in Latin which answer to 
our articles a and the, in translating we add these articles ac- 
cording to our understanding of the sense ; thus, the word rex 
may be read either a king or the king. This want of the article 
in Latin is considered a defect, as it often makes the sense ap- 
pear doubtful. 

3. Besides the adjectives which are connected with the noun 
there may be also a noun in the genitive case which, depend- 
ing on the former noun, should be construed immediately after it. 

4. A 'participle may belong to a noun, and require to be con- 
strued before the verb. 

5. The verb is a very important word in a sentence. When a 
noun is translated, the verb to which it is subject naturally be- 
comes a subject of thought ; and although we often bring in 

* Cleveland's First Lessons in the Lafin Grammar is an excellent work for be- 
ginners ; after this, the Liber Primus and Latin Reader may follow. The custom 
of commencing the reading of Latin with the poets, is not recommended. 



ANCIENT LANGUAGES, 101 

many other words before the verb, it will be more easy to 
arrange those words in proper order, when we know what the 
verb is; therefore as a general rule, it is best to ascertain imme- 
diately after translating the noun, to what verb it is nominative. 

6. If the verb is active, it will naturally be follov ed by a 
noun in the accusative case, but this noun may not b« placed 
directly after the verb as in English, but if the sentenc je long, 
the accusative case may be at some distance from the verb. 

7. After a preposition, it is necessary to look for a noun t liier 
in the accusative or ablative case. 

8. As the Latin language is very concise and elliptical, there 
are often many words to ue supplied in order to complete the 
sense when translated into English 

The rules I have now given for translating may be remember- 
ed by you, because they are few and very general. I will tres- 
pass on your patience by adding a few directions for parsing 
Latin. 

1. You know that Rule I. (Adams' Latin Grammar,) teach- 
es that the adjective must agree with its substantive in several 
particulars, as case, number and gender. In order to ascertain 
these particulars, you must find to what declension the adjective 
belongs; then, by declining it according to the rule for the de- 
clension of adjectives, (which you can find by referring to your 
grammars, if it is not in your memoritr,) you will come to the 
termination similar to the word before you ; thus you will be able 
to tell the case, number and gender of your adjective. And as 
for the noun to which it belongs, when you find one of the 
same case, number and gender, you may safely conclude they go 
together. 

2. "When you parse a noun, you must first find of what declen- 
sion it is; then you may, by varying it according to tii't de- 
clension, ascertain its number and case. The gender will de- 
pend in some degree upon the declension which to the noun be- 
longs ; for instance those of the first declension, are feminine ; 
those of the second declension which end in us, are mascu- 
line ; those which end in um are neuter. There are a few ex- 
ceptions to these general rule? but in learning any science it 
is best to get clear ideas of the general rules, and learn the ex- 
ceptions ; afterwards, for it is usually the case that in attempting 
to learn everything at once, the ideas become confused, and 
nothrng is clearly understoou. 

3. if the noun which you are parsing be in the nominative 
case, you must find the verb it governs; if it is in the genitive, it 
will most generally be governed by some other noun ; if it is in the 
dative, it will be governed by some adjective or verb ; if in the ac- 
cusative, it will be governed by an active verb or preposition, or 
placed before the infinitive mode; if in the vocative, it will stand 
unconnected with other words, or have an interjection joined 
with it; if in the ablative, it will be governed by a preposition, 
depend on circumstances of time, manner, &c, or be connected 
with a participle. 

9* 



102 ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 

You are not to expect in this sketch all the important rules 
for parsing; you are here merely shown a manner of generaliz- 
ing'; each one should, however, follow that mode of condensing 
rules and principles which most accords with the laws and opera- 
tions of her own mind. This process should be performed in 
every study you pursue ; when you have done this, and not till 
then, you may consider that the knowledge communicated to you 
has become truly your own. 

In the study of the Latin or any other language, you may feel 
encouraged by the consideration that every step you advance is 
rendering the next more easy, and especially by the thought that 
when your mind has once acquired a knowledge of the general 
principles of language, you will find the acquisition of new 
tongues can be made with great facility. After learning one 
foreign language you can probably learn two more with less 
labor. In possession of three languages, you could probably ac- 
quire six in less time than the first — and so on in a compound ratio. 
This may seem extravagant, but the testimony of those who have 
been distinguished for their extensive acquaintance with lan- 
guages goes to confirm the opinion. 

I shall now proceed <,o give some general rules for Quantity, 
Accent, and Latin verse* 

You will remember that Quantity is the space of time taken up 
in pronouncing a syllable. Accent is the tone of voice with 
which a syllable is pronounced. 

Rules for Quantity. 

Syllables with respect to their quantity are either long or 
short. A long syllable requires double the time of a short one in 
pronouncing. Some syllables are common; that is, sometimes 
long and sometimes short. 

1. A vowel before another vowel is short, as meus. 

2. A vowel before two consonants, or before a double consonant 
is long, (by position, as it is called) as drma dxis. 

3. A vowel before a mute and liquid is common, (that is some- 
times long and sometimes short) as volucris, tenebra. 

4. A contracted syllable is long, as nil for nihil. 

5. A diphthong is always long, except that prae in composition 
before a vowel is usually short, as prdeire. 

Final Syllables. 

A in the end of words declined by cases, is short, as musd. An 
exception to this is, that the ablative of the first declension is 
long, as musd. E, at the end of a word is short, as note. (Excep- 
tions must be made of monosyllables and nouns of the first and fifth 
declensions). J, final, is long with few exceptions. O, final, is 
common. U, final, is long ; Y, final, is short, nsfructu, moly. As, 
cs and os in the end of a word are long, as mas, quits. 

* Every English as well as Latin scholar should be acquainted with theise rales, 
as on these chiefly depend English pronunciation and versification. 



ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 103 

Rules for Accent. ( 

Every monosyllable is accented, Ex. — Tu. In words of two 
syllables the first is accented Ex. musa. In polysyllables the 
accent is on the penultimate, if it is a long syllable ; but if the 
penultimate be a short syllable, the accent must then be placed 
on the ante-penultimate. 

You will observe that ultimate, means last ; penultimate, last 
but one ; ante-penultimate, last but two. 

There are three accents, distinguished by their different 
sounds ; Acute, or sharp accent, raises the voice in pronuncia- 
tion, as in profer > (proffer) Grave, or bass accent, depresses the 
voice or keeps it in its natural tone as docth (learned). This 
accent probably belongs to all syllables which have no other. 
Circumflex accent first raises and then sinks the voice, on the 
same syllable, and is therefore only placed on long syllables, as 
am.tr e fto love). 

Of Verse. 

A verse is a certain number of long and short syllables dispos- 
ed according to rule. It is so called from the Latin verb verto 
(to turn), for when the number of syllables requisite is com- 
pleted, we always turn back to the beginning of a new line. 
The parts into which we divide a verse, to see if the number of 
syllables is correct, are called feet. 

Poetic Feet. 

Poetic feet are oreither two, three, or four syllables. When a 
single syllable is taken by itself, it is called Casura, which is 
commonly a long syllable. 

Feet of two Syllables. 

Spondeus consists of two long syllables, as omnes. Pyrrhickius 
consists oi" two short syllables, as deus. Iambus consists of one 
short and one long syllable, as dmdns. Trochdeus consists of one 
long and one short syllable, as servus. 

Feet of three Syllables. 

Dactylus consists of one long and two short syllables, as scrl-> 
b$re. Anapaestus consists of one long and two short syllables, as 
pieta3s. Amphimacer consists of a long, a short, and a long sylla- 
ble, as charitds. Tribrachys consists of three short syllables, as 
dominus. 

Scanning* 

The measure of verse, or the resolving it into the several feet 
of which it is composed, is called scanning. 

Hexameter. 

The hexameter, or heroic verse, consists of six feet; of these, 
the fifth is a dactyle, and the sixth a spondee ; all the rest may be 



104 ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 

either dactyles or spondees. A regular hexameter verse cannot 
have more than seventeen syllables, or fewer than thirteen. 
Sometimes a spondee is found in the fifth place ; it is then called 
spondaic verse ; it is used when anything grave, slow, sad or large 
is expressed. It commonly has a dactyle in the fourth place, and 
a word of four syllables at the end. 

Sometimes there remains a superfluous syllable at the end. 
But this syllable must either terminate in a vowel, or in a vowel 
with the consonant m after it, so as to be joined with the follow- 
ing verse, which in the present case must always begin with a 
vowel. 

The Ccesura is, when, after a foot is completed, there remains 
a syllable at the end of a word to begin a new foot. The Caes- 
ura is variously named, according to the different parts of the 
hexameter verse in which it is found. The most common and 
beautiful Caesura is when it falls upon the fifth half foot, or the 
syllable after the second foot; this is called the Penthemim. 
"When the Caesura falls on a syllable naturally short, it renders 
it long. The chief melody of a hexameter verse in a great 
measure depends upon the proper disposition of the Caesura. 

Figures in Scanning. 

Synalcepha, is the cutting off a vowel or a diphthong, when the 
next word begins with a vowel ; it is sometimes neglected, and 
seldom takes place in the interjections, &c. Long vowels and 
diphthongs when not cut off are sometimes shortened. 

Ecthlipsis is when m is cut off with a vowel before it at the 
end of a word, because the following word begins with a vowel. 

Synceresis, is the contraction of two syllables into one. Dlterc- 
sis divides one syllable into two. Systole is when a long sylla- 
ble is made short. Diastole is when a syllable usually short is 
made long. 

Figures of Diction. 

Prosthesis is when a letter or syllable is added to the begin- 
ning of a word, as gnavus for .iavus . Epenthesis is when a letter 
or syllable is interposed in the middle of a word, as induperator, 
for imperator. Syncope when a letter or syllable is taken from 
the middle of a word, as dixti for dixisti. Apocope when a letter 
pr syllable is taken from the end. Metathesis is when a letter or 
syllable is transposed. Antithesis is when cne letter is put for 
another. 

We will now dismr~ ! the Latin, and hasten to nni 1 
our view of the dead languages with a few remarks up- 
on the study of Greek and Hebrew. 

The elements of the Greek language are by no means 
as difficult of attainment as is generally believed. The 
alphabet may be learned in a few hours, and after stu- 



ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 105 

dying a pronoun, a verb, and a noun, the pupil can com- 
mence the translation of such simple sentences as con- 
tain words analogous to those whose declension and 
conjugation have been studied.* Other nouns, .verbs, 
&/C. can then be studied, and application be made as 
before. In this way, even a few weeks of study of the 
Greek language may prove of great advantage. 

To be a Greek scholar, it requires more time and la- 
bor than females in general can give from their other 
pursuits ; and should some proceed so far in the study as 
to perceive the difficulties still to be surmounted, a sense 
of their own comparative ignorance should tend to ren- 
der them humble and unpretending, rather than confi- 
dent and pedantic. 

This harmonious and beautiful language is that of 
Aristotle, Pindar, Homer, and many other sublime writ- 
ers, whose works contain the germ of most of the sci- 
ences and discoveries upon which the moderns have so 
much prided themselves. 

* It was Homer,' says an energetic writer, t ' who gave 
laws to the artist; it was Homer, who thundered in the 
senate ; and more than all, it was Homer who was sung 
by the people ; and hence a nation was cast into the 
mould of one mighty mind, and the land of the Iliad 
became the region of taste, the birth place of the arts. 
Nor was this influence confined within the limits of 
Greece. Long after the sceptre of empire had pass- 
ed westward, genius still held her courts on the banks of 
Ilysius, and from the country of Homer gave laws to the 
world. The light, which the blind old man of Scio had 
kindled in Greece, shed its radiance over Italy, and thus 
did he awaken a second nation to intellectual existence. 
And we may form some idea of the power which this one 
work has to the present day exerted over the mind of 

* A small work recently published by Professor Goodrich, en- 
titled, ' Lessons in Greek Parsing,' conducts the pupil in this 
easy and agreeable manner through the elements of the language. 
The author, in having made the access to this beautiful language 
thus easy, deserves more from the public than many a ponderous 
writer of unread quartos. 

t President Wayland. 



106 ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 

man, by remarking, that nation after nation, and century 
after centurv, has been able to do little more than trans- 
pose his incidents, new name his characters, and para- 
phrase his sentiments.' 

The language of Homer, with the fortunes of Greece, 
has undergone an essential change, and is modified with 
the intermixture of the Turkish and some other modern 
languages. The modern Greek, though highly melodi- 
ous, is far less distinguished for sublimity than the an- 
cient. 

Many of our scientific terms are derived from the 
Greek. In botany, the names of the classes and orders 
of plants may be traced to this source ; as monodelphia, 
from monos, one, and adelphia, brotherhood. In che- 
mistry, we have the word oxygen, from oxus, acid, and 
gennao, to produce. Many words, not considered tech- 
nical, are of Greek origin, as athletic,* gy mnastic,f 
theatre,| &c; theology, from theos, God, and logos, a. 
word or discourse, signifying the science which treats of 
God ; physics, from phisis, material nature, and meta- 
physics, signifying the study of what is above or beyond 
matter. 

Those of you, who have merely learned enough of the 
Greek language to trace the derivation of words, may 
consider that you have gained a key to an important 
branch of knowledge ; by means of which your own lan- 
guage will appear in a new and interesting light. 

The Greek language is that in which the New Testa- 
ment was written. To be able to read this holy volume 
in the original, is a very important attainment, and on 
account of the simplicity of the style, less difficult than 
is generally imagined. To an English lady,§ literature 
is indebted for an excellent translation of Epictetus, one 
of the Grecian poets. 

The Hebrew is the language of the ancient Israelites, 
and that in which the Old Testament was written. It is 

* From the Greek athletis, a wrestler. 

t From gymnasium, a place where athletic exercises were per- 
formed. 

t From theatron, a place where shows were exhibited. 
§ Mrs. Elizabeth Carter. 



ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 107 

supposed to be the most ancient language now known, 
The Jews still make use of it in their synagogues. A knowl- 
edge of the Hebrew is highly important for ministers 
of the gospel, in order that they may understand the 
scriptures of the Old Testament in their original strength 
and beauty. Few ladies attempt this study. Its connex- 
ion with our own language, or with science is but slight. 
The alchymists however had borrowed many terms from 
this language, and these words along with the fragments 
of the science have become incorporated with chemis- 
try. 

For the encouragement of those who may desire to be- 
come acquainted with languages, I will mention the ac- 
quisitions of a young lady with whose biography I hope 
many of you are already familiar ; I mean Elizabeth 
Smith, of England, who died at the commencement of 
the present century. — Her biographer observes that she 
early showed a great desire for instruction, and devoted 
that time which is often spent in trifling amusements to the 
acquisition of knowledge. Under adverse circumstances of 
fortune, which allowed her few advantages, she early learn- 
ed the Spanish and Italian languages, and became fami- 
liar with geometry. After this, she acquired the German, 
Latin, Greek, and Hebrew lauguages, and made consid- 
erable progress in the Arabian and Persian. She was, 
says her biographer, ' a very fine musician, and those 
ladies who devote almost their whole time to this single 
accomplishment, may feel astonished that one of their own 
sex should have been able to unite with it such proficien- 
cy in abstruse sciences. She was at the same time remarka- 
ble for attention to domestic employments, and for her deli- 
cate taste in dress, displaying as much skill in making a 
gown or cap as in explaining a problem in Euclid or a 
difficult passage in Hebrew.' Of her Hebrew translations 
one of the most learned scholars of Europe observes, 
* This work strikes me as conveying more of the true 
character and meaning of the Hebrew than any other 
translation that we possess.' This character,, so perfect 
in intellect, so pure and amiable in morals, possessed al- 
so that crowning ornament, without which, as a whole, it 
would have been imperfect — piety. She was called to an 



108 MODERN LANGUAGES. 

early grave ; but the embalming spirit of religion had 
anointed her body for burial, and preserving in all their 
loveliness the beautiful lineaments of her mind, prepar- 
ed it for a high station among those pure and holy in- 
telligences, who differ in degree of knowledge and happi- 
ness, as ' one star differeth from another star in glory.' 



LECTURE XI. 

Modern Languages. 



Some of the modern tongues are generally admit- 
ted to be desirable accomplishments for young ladies. 
Facilities for acquiring these are, however, less frequent 
than for learning Latin and Greek. I refer here to those 
cases in which girls are educated at, home during the 
first twelve or fourteen years. 

People who reside in the country, unless in the vicinity 
of literary institutions, seldom have an opportunity of 
learning the modern tongues from well qualified teachers, 
as such can find more eligible situations in populous 
places. But there are few country towns where some 
persons might not be found competent to teach the dead 
languages. The clergyman, lawyer or doctor of the parish 
would probably be willing to devote a small portion of 
time to a review of classical studies, or a young lady's 
father or brother may be able to assist her in acquiring 
the elements of the dead languages. A pupil thus pre- 
pared to commence French, or any other modern lan- 
guage, may be expected to make rapid progress. 

Few except the natives of a country are competent to 
teach its language. There are probably some English 
teachers of the French, who by long practice have acquir- 
ed a tolerably correct pronunciation ; but in general it is 
not advisable to commence this language under any but 
a native teacher. The Spanish pronunciation, being 
much more easy to an English tongue, may be better 



MODERN LANGUAGES. 109 

taught by an English teacher than the French or Italian, 
The Italian is less difficult than the French. 

Books which attempt to give the sounds of French 
words by combinations of English letters, always mislead a 
student. For example, in a work professing to be a guide to 
French pronunciation, I find a direction to pronounce the 
word brouillard, a storm, thus, broolar ; the I being mark- 
ed as silent, the pronunciation would be brooar. Those 
of you who are accustomed to the peculiar changes of 
some of the organs of speech in the pronunciation of the 
French liquid sounds, will at once perceive the impossibili- 
ty of expressing the same by any combination of English 
sounds. I might add many other examples equally tending 
to show that the French, as a spoken language, must be 
learned orally. Those who have not the advantages of ac- 
quiring the French accent, may, even without a teacher, 
learn to translate the language. While no other tongue 
is so difficult to pronounce as the French, no other is so 
easily translated into English. 

At the present time, the French is more generally 
spoken than any language in the world. It is a medium 
of communication common to the polite, as is the Latin 
to the learned. It is the language in which the diplo- 
matic correspondence of the different courts of Eu- 
rope is usually carried on. It is a familiar sound in the 
streets of St. Petersburg, Rome, Madrid, London and 
New York. The educated South American speaks 
French almost like a Parisian ; and few of the inhabit- 
ants of the West Indian islands are ignorant of the lan- 
guage. In many parts of Canada and Louisiana it is 
the prevailing tongue. 

You see then how valuable must be a language so 
extensive in its use ; and the opportunity which is here 
enjoyed of acquiring it in its native elegance of pronun- 
ciation, should be prized and improved by those who are 
thus privileged. 

The French literature is rich and diversified. It is 
not, however, to be expected that all who -study this 
language will become so familiar with it as to be able 
to speak or even to read it with fluency ; but it should be 
accounted no useless attainment to be able to translate ths 
10 



110 MODERN LANGUAGES. 

occasional French sentences which you will meet with 
in the course of your English reading. At the present 
day, scarcely a new publication appears, which does 
not contain more or less French words and senten- 
ces. They are also much introduced into conversa- 
tion ; and we are constantly hearing people, (and 
among these, some who know nothing of the lan- 
guage except as they provide themselves for partic- 
ular occasions,) expressing themselves after the French 
tournure, and in French phrases. 

Many of the French words which may be considered 
as adopted into our own language are still pronounced 
with their original French sounds, as debut, depot, eclat, 
&c. It would appear ludicrous to a polite ear to hear 
these words pronounced according to the analogies of 
the English. 

A sketch of the history of the French language, with 
some remarks upon its literature may not be useless or 
uninteresting to you. The French language, is compar- 
atively of modern origin. France was anciently called 
Gaul, or Gallia. The first inhabitants of this country 
mentioned in history were the Celts. Some vestiges of 
their language are said to appear in the dialect of the 
peasants of Brittany in France, called the Armoric. 
When Gaul was conquered by the Romans under Julius 
Caesar, the Latin was introduced, as it was into England 
about the same time. The language of the Franks and 
other savage tribes gradually became incorporated with 
that of the Gauls and the Romans ; and the whole form- 
ed a corrupt dialect which was called the Romance, or 
Roman rustic;* because spoken by the peasantry, who 

* The following is a specimen of the old romance, or Roman 
rustic, as exhibited in Morland's history of the churches of the 
valleys of Piemonts. 

' Car la plus fort arm a dura que lo Diavol ay a son las fennas, 
laqual cosa es demonstra, car lo Diavol eslegic la fenna a decebre 
lo premier home. Et Balaam acer eslegic aquestas a degittar lo 
filli d' Israel.' 

' Now the strongest arms the Devil hath are women, which 
thing is shown in that the Devil made choice of the woman to de- 
ceive the first man by. And Balaam made choice of them to re- 
ject the children of Israel.' 



MODERN LANGUAGES. Ill 

had mixed their own language with Latin words and 
idioms. This dialect was divided into two branches, 
which received their names from the respective modes 
of pronouncing the terms for the affirmative yes. In 
the southern part of France, this was expressed by Oc, 
and their dialect was called, langue d' Oc (the language 
of Oc) or Occitanic dialect. North of the Loire, where 
yes was expressed by oui, the language was called 
langue d'Oui; from the latter was derived the Modern 
French. In the 12th century the south of France was 
united under one government called Provence, and the 
langue cl 'Oc then took the name of Provencal.* At 
this time the Northern dialect assumed the name of 
French. The accent of the people in the south of 
France, at this time, differs considerably from that of 
the Parisian. 

It was about this period that the Troubadours, or 
wandering minstrels, gave to the French people a taste 
for poetry and romance. The Crusades had served to 
foster the most extravagant passions, and had given rise 
to the most romantic incidents. The human mind 
glowing with new and tender images, and luxuriating in 
the unrestrained freedom of those lawless days, exhibited 
a strange mixture of wildness and refinement. This 
was a period peculiar to itself, and one which has furnished 
modern fiction with its choicest materials. The very 
name of Chivalry, knight or troubadour, seems to call 
up the spirit of curiosity and give interest to a tale or 
song.f 

The song of the Troubadour was heard with equal 
delight in the castle and in the cottage, by courtly 
dames and humble peasants. None of the productions 
of those poets are now celebrated in literature. 

The fifteenth century produced a poet of great taste 
and sweetness, Charles d' Orleans, father of Louis XII., 
and uncle of Francis I. He composed most of his po- 

* The mark under the c, in the word Provencal, 'is the French 
cedilla, which denotes that c has the sound of s. 

t Mrs. Hemans' popular song of { The knight look'ddown from 
the Paynim's Tower,' is thus most happily chosen for effect. 



112 MODERN LANGUAGES. 

etry while imprisoned in England, whither he was carried 
after having been captured at the battle of Agincourt. 
Cotemporary with this poet, was Clotilde de Sarville, 
many of whose thoughts were strikingly beautiful, and 
whose style was highly polished for the time in which 
she wrote.* 

* It may not be uninteresting to the pupil in French to note the 
peculiar orthography of that remote period, while all may delight 
in those sweet and touching expressions of maternal love of this 
female writer of the fifteenth century. 

Verslets a mon Premier ne. 

1 O cher enfantelet, vray pourtraict de tou pere, 
Dors sur le seyn que ta bousche a presse I 

Dors, petiot ; cloz, amy, sur le seyn de ta mere 7 
Tien doulx oeillet par le somme oppresse. 

1 Bel amy, cher petiot, que ta pupille tendre, 

Gouste ung sommeil qui plus n'est faict pour moy t 

le veille pour te veoir, te nourrir, te defendre — 
Ainz qu'il m'est doulx ne veiller que pour toy ! 

' Estend ses brasselets; s'espand sur lui le somme : 
Se clost son o3il : plus ne bouge — il s'endort — 

N'estoit ce tayn flowry des couleurs de la pomme, 
Nele diriez dans les bras de la mort ? 

' Arreste, cher enfant ! — j'en fremy toute engtiere ! 

Reveille-toy ! chasse ung fatal propoz ! 
Mon fils ! — pour ung moment — ah ! reyoy la lunicre t 

Au prilx du tien rends-moy tout mon repoz ! 

' Doulce erreur ! il dormoit — c'est assez — respire ; 

Songes legiers, flattez son doulx sommeil ! 
Ah ! quand voyray cestuy pour qui mon coeur souspire,. 

Aux miens costez, jouir de son reveil ? ' 

Lijves to my First Born. 

( Sweet babe ! true portrait of thy father's face, 
Sleep on the bosom that thy lips hare prest ! 

Sleep, little one ; and closely, gently place 
Thy drowsy eyelids on thy mother's breast. 

' Upon that tender eye, my little friend, 

Soft sleep shall come, that cometh not to me ' 

I watch to see thee, nourish thee, defend — 
'Tis sweet to watch for thee — alone, for thee. 

6 His arms fall down ; sleep sits upon his brow ' r 
His eye is closed : he sleeps — how still and calm I 

"Wore not his cheek the apple's ruddy glow, 

Would you not say he slept on death's cold armi 1 



MODERN LANGUAGFS. 113 

In 1539, Francis I., called the Father of letters, estab- 
lished a professorship of the French language, and for- 
bade the use of the Latin in public documents and judi- 
cial proceedings. During his reign the language was 
greatly improved, and literary men received the most 
munificent encouragement. Clement Marot, a poet of 
those days, is said to have used every effort to re- 
form the. barbarities of his language, and to intro- 
duce refined and elegant expressions. He acknowledged 
that to the conversation of polished females he was in- 
debted for the improvements which he introduced. 

In 1635, the Acadamie Francaise, consisting of forty 
members, was established by Cardinal Richelieu. To 
this body was consigned the care of the language and 
literature of the nation. 

In ]694, was published the dictionary of the Academy, 
which continued to be the standard of the French lan- 
guage until the revolution of 1789; since which time, 
new words and phrases, corresponding to a new state of 
things, have gradually been intioduced. 

To Malsherbes, a man of great genius and learning, 
whose labors preceded the reign of Louis XIV. is ascrib- 
ed the honor of having rescued the French language 
more effectually from foreign idioms than any other 
writer had done. So peremptorily did he insist on this 
point, that he was called the ' Tyrant of words and syl- 
lables; and it is said, that when in the hour of death his 
confessor was expatiating on the joys of heaven, he beg- 
ged him not to speak on such a subject in language so 
vulgar and inaccurate. 

The reign of Louis XIV. is considered as the Augus- 

' Awake, rriy boy ! — I tremble with affright ! 

Awake, and chase this fatal thought! — unclose 
Thine eye but for one moment on the light ! 

Even "at the price of thine give me repose ! 

1 Sweet error ! — he but slept— I breathe again — 
Come gentle dreams, the hour of sleep beguile ! 

Oh ! when shall he, for whom I sigh in vain, 
Beside me watch to see that waking smife ? ' 

For this translation, and some facts relating to French literature, 
the author is indebted to the Morth American Review. 

10* 



Hi MODERN LANGUAGES. 

tan age of French literature. Montaigne at this period 
complained of the fluctuating character ofhis language, 
and endeavored to give it energy and stability. Cor- 
neille, Moliere, Racine and Voltaire successively occu- 
pied the public with their dramatic writings. Fenelon, 
the amiable and pious author of Telemachus, distinguish- 
ed himself for several valuable and interesting works. 
Rousseau rendered himself famous for talents, and infa- 
mous for the abuse of them. Condillac was an able met- 
aphysical writer of a later period ; although professing 
himself a disciple of Locke, he seems to have miscon- 
ceived the opinions of that writer in some important 
points, especially with regard to sensations ; these Locke 
considered to be the moving cause of certain mental 
operations, which, being independent of matter, were 
therefore entirely different from sensations. He termed 
them ideas of reflection. Condillac erroneously supposed 
the language of Locke to be, that all our mental opera 
tions were sensations, and the shadoivs of sensations. 
Mr. Locke's ideas of reflection were called, in the system 
of Condillac, sensations. Mr. Locke termed feelings, or 
reflections, the mind looking in„ upon itself ; while 
Condillac probably understood him to mean the reflect- 
edimages of sensations. But although we admit that sen- 
sation seems to awaken in the mind the germ of thought, 
we cannot consider our intellectual states of mind 
or our emotions merely as sensations under a new form. 

Among the female writers in the French language, 
are Madame de Genlis, distinguished for the num- 
ber of her works, (amounting to more than one hun- 
dred volumes), Madame de Siael, a woman of a pow- 
erful and masculine intellect, and Madame de Sevigne, 
whose letters are considered as patterns of epistolary 
writing. I would also mention Madame Campan, whose 
ideas on female education were more just and solid than 
moot of her cotemporaries. 

Wc have already devoted more time to the considera- 
tion of language? than was at first intended, and must 
omit enlarging upon the Spanish and Italian literature. 
These are much less extensive than the French ; yet these 
languages possess claims to the attention of the student 



MODERN LANGTTAfStffl. 115 

who has leisure and opportunity for acquiring them. 
The Spanish excels in dignity, the Italian in sweetness. 
From their analogy both with the French, and Latin a 
knowledge of those languages may be easily obtained by 
one who understands either of the two latter. 

With this lecture will close our view of languages, to 
which branches of study we have hitherto given our 
attention, have all a relation as to one common object. 
Several of the first lectures of our course were prelimi- 
nary considerations on the subject of education in gen- 
eral. In commencing with the individual branches, we 
considered the process of combining articulate sounds 
in a manner to form words, the importance of a know- 
ledge of orthography, and pointed out some methods for 
correcting bad habits of spelling. 

Secondly, we remarked upon the process of learning 
to read, the requisites for the good reader, a peculiar im- 
portance of this qualification to our own sex, and some 
of the defects most common in this department of edu- 
cation. 

Thirdly, we remarked upon that science which gives 
rules for the construction of sentences, and by means of 
which language receives its character and permanency* 
That mode of speech which has no grammatical stand- 
ard, can be considered only as a kind of savage dialect. 
As a people become civilized, they naturally fix the 
boundaries and idioms of their language. 

Fourthly, from the consideration of grammar, or the 
study of our own language, we proceeded to consider the 
use of the Latin, as a branch of female education. On 
account, of its utility in giving correct ideas of our own 
and other modern tongues, and especially its important 
aid to mental discipline, it was recommended to those 
who can have the advantages of a liberal course of study. 
Our view of ancient languages closed with some brief 
remarks upon the Greek and Hebrew. 

Fifthly, we considered the study of modern languages, 
devoting our attention chiafly to that of the French, 
which, on account of the greater extent to which it is 
spoken and the superior richness of its literature, de- 
mands the greatest attention. 



116 MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 

Wo are now to commence with a different department 
of education, to begin a review of certain other branch- 
es of study, which, like those we have already examined, 
have an intimate relation to each other. Several of our 
next lectures will be devoted to modern and ancient ge- 
ography, modern and ancient history, and mythology, 
between all of which their is a connexion more or less 
intimate. In these studies, although language ceases to be 
the immediate subject of our inquiry, we are still de- 
pendent upon it as a medium of communication. 

We are now. to consider the earth, with respect to its 
general and particular divisions; its features both of land 
and water ; the races and nations of human beings who 
have dwelt upon its surface, with its various revolutions, 
civil, political and moral. As we ascend into antiquity, 
our lights become dim and uncertain, and carry us into 
the fabulous regions of mythology. Most of the ancient 
divinities are supposed to be distinguished persons, who, 
for their good or evil deeds, were immortalized by be- 
coming objects of worship ; the favor of some being im- 
plored, while the wrath of others was deprecated. 



LECTURE XII. 

Modern Geography. — Ancient Geography. 

In pursuing the course at first marked out for our 
Saturday's lectures, I find the subject of intellectual im- 
provement expanding so much before me, that it will be 
necessary to pass over in a more cursory manner than 
could be wished, the various branches of education 
which occupy the attention of the individual members of 
an institution, including pupils differing widely from each 
other in age and literary acquirements. 

On account of this diversity, I sometimes feel an em- 
barrassment respecting the style in which you should be 
addressed, and the kind of information most proper to 



MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 117 

be communicated ; for in endeavoring to accommo- 
date myself to the capacities of the more advanced pu- 
pils, there is danger that others may be uninterested and 
uninstructed ; while on the other hand, to address my- 
self generally to the younger, and less understanding 
class of pupils, would be to discourage those who give 
tone and character to the institution, and for whose im- 
provement it is more especially designed. 

But it is not useless for the advanced pupil occasion- 
ally to look back to the elements of sciences which have 
become familiar, and to take general views of what has 
been passed in detail. When laboring to reach the sum- 
mit of Mount Ida* you have not been as sensible of the 
actual appearances, and especially of the relative situa- 
tions of the various streets and buildings which you 
passed, as when you could look down from a command- 
ing height on those objects ; you then enjoyed the scen- 
ery as a whole, and saw the separate objects combining 
to form one beautiful scene. So it is in science, each 
separate principle and fact at first engages the atten- 
tion, one difficulty arises as another is conquered, until 
the mind delights to pause in the ascent, and look 
down on the prospect beneath. It is thus that it becomes 
invigorated for new toils. 

If younger pupils shall sometimes hear subjects dis- 
cussed which they do not comprehend, it may serve to 
quicken their diligence to attain knowledge which they 
perceive to be familiar to others. It is well, too, for them, 
that their Curiosity should be excited — well for them to 
perceive the many paths of knowledge which lie before 
them, and in exploring which, although there is labor, 
there is also an ample reward. 

It was my intention to have given a sketch of the his- 
tory, uses and applications of the different branches of 
female education ; but, as before remarked, in order that 
the literary department of our course shall not occupy a 
much greater space than its relative importance demands, 
it will be necessary to be more general than may be in- 

* An eminence east of Troy, and a favorite walk of the pupils 
of the seminary. 



118 MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 

teresting to you, or satisfactory to myself. I said the 
relative importance, for in comparison to the moral and 
religious formation of the youthful mind, literary attain- 
ments dwindle into insignificance.* 

We will now proceed to notice the science of geogra- 
phy. On the importance of this study it is unnecessary 
to^dwell, since it is usually a favorite pursuit with most 
young persons, and in most schools receives a large 
share of attention. 

Great improvements within a few years have been 
made in the methods of teaching geography, and in the 
books used for that purpose. Twenty years since, the best 
works used were those of Dwight, Morse and Guthrie. 
Dwight's geography was in the form of question and an- 
swer ; it was unaccompanied by an atlas or maps of any 
kind. Morse's first work, though superior to Dwight's 
contained no attempt at classifying facts in a philosoph- 
ical manner ; a pupil might study it diligently for months, 
and yet, for want of some connecting principle, the 
knowledge acquired' would neither be useful or per- 
manent. Guthrie's geography was a voluminous work, 
containing a great mass of matter, but equally unphilo- 
sophical in its arrangement as other cotemporaneous 
works. 

It is within the last fifteen years, that the present meth- 
od of teaching geography by maps, has been introduced. 
For some time after geographies were accompanied with 
atlasses, no attempt was made to teach the drawing 
of maps, except in a laborious and unprofitable man- 
ner, which occupied weeks, and even months, with 
little other advantage than that of giving to the pu- 
pil neatness of execution. This method consisted of 
delineating maps upon paper, and coloring and print- 
ing them. These maps had a very pretty appear- 

* It was the intention of the author when preparing these lec- 
tures for the press, to have included in one volume the different 
departments of education, as well as lectures on the duties of ed- 
ucated women in their various relations ; but the literary depart- 
ment seemed to embrace too many subjects to be examined with- 
in the space at first allotted to it. The more important subjects- 
which remain, the author proposes to include in a second volume. 



MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 119 

ance, but, as they were often drawn by tracing on 
paper laid over the original ; the mind of the pupil 
was usually too intent on the mechanical performance 
to think of the relative situation of places. A young 
lady, after spending three months at a boarding school, 
and having drawn and painted a map, was considered 
as well versed in geography, though in truth she might 
be almost as ignorant of the science as the uncon- 
scious material on whose surface her map had been de- 
lineated. 

The system of teaching geography as, published by 
Mrs. Willard and Mr. Woodbridge, in their series of geo- 
graphical works,* was introduced by the former into her 
school in Middlebury, Vermont, about the year 1816. 
She had no books which contained her plan, and taught 
her pupils from her own manuscripts. She made 
great use of maps in every recitation. The exercise 
of the pupil in drawing maps upon the black board 
is an improvement of still later date. You can all 
bear witness that this is a most effectual method of im- 
printing on the mind the contiguity and relative situa- 
tions of countries. Another great improvement in teach- 
ing this science is that the pupil now commences with 
his own town and country, and proceeds from thence to 
distant places. 

It seems, at this period, absurd to imagine a child re- 
ceiving for his first lesson in geography, a description of 

* Some years before the publication of these books. Mrs. Wil- 
lard communicated to me her intention of preparing a geography 
on a new plan She remarked that on the method then in use 
the principles of generalization seemed to be left out of the ques- 
tion ; that instead of taking up each country singly, giving an 
account of its civilization, manufactures, state of education, reli- 
gions, &c, these subjects should be treated of under separate 
heads, and thus comparison and generalization be made to aid the 
memory, while at the same time this method of arrangement 
would prove a useful discipline to those mental powers which 
were by its means called into operation. Mrs. W. remarked, that a 
work on such a plan would cause a new era in teaching the sci- 
ence of geography. I considered this at the time a bold, assertion j 
but the general adoption of this method, the distinctive features 
of which are more fully developed in the Universal (Geography 
ao admirably executed by Mr. "Woodbridge, establish its truth 



120 MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 

the solar system ; for the next, a mathematical account 
of the divisions of the earth, and then of being carried to 
Africa, Europe, and Asia, before a word is said of his 
own country. We now reverse this method, and in Mrs. 
Willard's ' Geography for Beginners,' the teacher is di- 
rected to present the child with a map of his own town, 
to direct his attention to the river before his own door, 
to the mountains which are in sight, and the towns 
which bound his own native place.* 

The word geography is derived from the Greek ge, 
the earth, and grapho, to delineate; but its primitive 
signification of a delineation of the earth has been grad- 
ually extended, so that now, geography includes a de- 
scription of climates, soil and productions, and even of 
the moral and intellectual character of mankind. 

The science of geography is intimately connected with 
astronomy ; even our knowledge of the figure of the earth 
is derived from observing its shadow upon the moon, 
when in eclipse. An eclipse, as you well know, is 
caused by the shadow of the earth falling upon the 
moon ; this shadow being always bounded by a cir- 
cular line, proves that the body which caused it is 
round. In the early ages of mankind the earth was 
supposed to be a round flat surface, terminated by an 
immeasurable gulf. Each barbarous nation supposed 
itself in the centre of this great plain. Some supposed that 
the earth rested upon the back of an enormous elephant ; 
and the elephant rested upon a huge tortoise ; but here 
arose a greater difficulty than at first, since the whole 
was then to be supported by same new monster. You 
perceive how ridiculous are such hypotheses ; but they 
are not more so than a thousand others which were 
received by mankind in their rude state. 

* By teaching pupils in this simple manner, an instruct- 
or would have no cause to fear those blunders which are 
sometimes made by pupils when taught definitions before they 
are made to understand facts. A teacher, who had faithfully la- 
bored to prepare a class for examination, asked a young Miss who 
stood at the head, ' What is Geography?' The pupil, much to 
the entertainment of the audience and chagrin of her instructer, 
promptly and audibly answered, * Geography is a large ball, or 
globe. 1 



MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 121 

By astronomy we learn the existence of what is called 
the Solar System, having for its centre the sun, around 
which revolve several wo;lds or planets : the earth we 
inhabit being the third in order from the sun, and travel- 
ling in a path called its orbit, around this great luminary, 
once, in a period of time, which we call a year. This 
journey causes summer and winter : for when the earth 
is in that part of its orbit where the sun shines directly 
upon it, we have summer, and when in that part where 
the sun's rays fall obliquely we have winter. Our days 
are longer in summer, and shorter in winter, from our 
change of situation with respect to the sun. 

Although it is the real motion of the earth around the 
sun which causes the changes in their relative situations, 
yet to us, the sun is apparently approaching to, and 
receding from the earth. In March and September, 
the sun appears to be at the equator, and the days and 
nights are equal in all parts of the world.* After the 
20th of March, the sun appears to advance towards us, 
and in June it appears at the tropic of Cancer, which is 
its northern boundary; after this it turns back and pur- 
sues its course towards the southern tropic, which it 
reaches in six months. 

We learn by astronomy that the planets, and our 
earth among the number, turn as if upon an axis once in 
a given period of time. The earth turns completely 
round, in a period of time which we call a day. This 
day we divide into twenty-four parts, each of which we 
call an hour. But the term day is used in another 
sense, viz. to denote the presence of the sun, while its 
absence is called night. Thus when the earth, in its 
turning round, carries the side we are upon away from 
the sun, we have night; when we are carried towards 
the sun, we have day. 

The division of the earth into zones is made with 
reference to the sun — those parts of the earth over which 
the sun is sometimes directly overhead are called the torrid 
or burning zone. In the temperate zones the sun is 

* These periods are called the equinoxes, from aqus, equal, and 
nox, night ; the night then being equal to the day. 

11 



122 MODERN GEOGRAPHY, 

never vertical, but the length of the days is not over 
twenty-four hours. The other two zones are the frigid ; 
on these the sun shines very obliquely. They have days 
varying in length from twenty-four hours to six months. 
That department of geography which treats of the various 
circles supposed to be descr ibed on its surface, as parallels 
of latitude, meridians, &c, is called mathematical geo- 
graphy. 

But we have not yet considered what supports the 
earth. Wonderful as it may seem the earth stands upon 
nothing ; like the moon and sun it is suspended in the hea- 
vens without support. You know that even a little ball will 
not remain in the air without being supported by some- 
thing : why does the ball fall to the ground? Why do 
all heavy bodies fall 1 We answer, that they are attract- 
ed to the earth by a force called gravitation. Now the 
earth, strange as it may seem, is kept from falling by 
the very power which causes a stone to fall. 

The sun, by the force of gravitation, attracts the 
earth towards it; but the earth, when commencing its 
course, received from its Creator an impulse tending to 
carry it in a direction directly contrary to the sun: 
the force of gravitation tends as you see to carry it 
directly towards the sun ; but the earth obeying neither 
force, though influenced by both, takes a middle course, 
and is thus kept moving round the sun. The connexion 
of the earth with the sun and other heavenly bodies is 
called Astronomical Geography. 

Physical or Natural Geography is a very comprehen- 
sive science ; it includes a knowledge of the materials 
of which the earth is composed. This- knowledge 
embraces the science of Geology, which names and 
arranges the rocks and other materials which compose 
the earth ; and of Chemistry , which teaches the constitu- 
ent elements of these substances. Thus you see, that 
sciences which may appear distinct, have an intimate 
connexion with each other, since geology and chemistry 
are necessary to a complete knowledge of geography. 
Physical geography also comprehends a knowledge of 
those substances which grow out of the earth, and this 
knowledge is called Botany. 



MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 123 

We will suppose ourselves to be seated in a balloon, suffi- 
ciently elevated above the surface of the earth to be able 
to distinguish its general figure and surface. Let us 
look first at its figure. We behold, suspended as it would 
seem in empty space, though in reality surrounded by the 
material substance air, a large ball, not exactly round, 
but a little flattened at each end or pole. This ball pre- 
sents an uneven surface : while it is turning around from 
west to east, let us examine the various objects which 
appear. For this we must approach nearer. Here we 
see a long strip of land extending almost from one pole to 
the other ; nearly in the centre it seems penetrated by 
an arm of the ocean : this must be the great American 
continent, separated by the Gulf of Mexico into a north- 
ern and southern part. 

We will suppose that our balloon is somewhat lowered 
and directed over the northern part of this great conti- 
nent ; and what do we now see? On two sides are vast 
oceans, washing its eastern and western coasts, and on 
the north an ocean of ice separates it from the north 
pole. Do you observe that chain of lakes? These are 
called the Great Lakes, being the largest in the world. 
Let us approach nearer. Do you hear a sound like the 
rush of mighty waters? It is the thundering Niagara, 
which had poured forth its mass of waters, long be- 
fore man had heard the roar of its cataract. But 
what becomes of this vast collection of water? It 
hurries onward, forming mighty rivers and lakes, until it 
becomes lost in the great ocean, which you see on the 
east. 

But we must not, in the sublimity of this scene, forget 
that we have other observations to make. Let us direct 
our course towards the middle of this country, which we 
call North America. There, from the north, flows a 
majestic river, receiving in its course many noble 
streams ; one, rapid and turbulent, bringing along mud 
and roots and trunks of trees torn up in its fury, comes 
foaming from the west ; another, scarcely less rapid in 
its course, comes from the east : the parent river, 
embracing them both with many other tributary streams,, 
bears them on to the southern gulf 



124 MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 

You see here an extensive country, through which 
the rivers descend from the north, from the east and 
west: this is called a basin, and many delightful val- 
leys and pi sins does it contain ; its sides on the west and 
east are the Rocky Mountains, and the Apalachian on 
the north, a high ridge which divides the waters that 
flow towards the northern ocean from those which run 
towards the southern gulf. 

We will now go eastward, and pass that great chain 
of mountains which may well be called the back bone 
of our country. We are now on its eastern side. Look, 
and you will see many rivers flowing towards the 
eastern ocean. Do you observe the north-eastern part 
of the section of country we are now viewing'? You 
may there see mountains with snow-covered tops; and 
farther west, another chain whose summits and sides are 
always verdant : between these mountains, pursuing a 
southern course, a river is seen whose progress at first seem 
hurried, but by degrees its youthful impetuosity subsides, 
and, with calm and placid motion, it bears itself on to 
an arm of the ocean, running in from the east, and 
forming the southern boundary to a lovely country. The 
valley of this river is adorned with the ornaments of art 
and the richest gifts of nature. This valley, and an 
extensive territory on the east and west of it are called 
New England, or the country of the pilgrims. History 
will tell you why these names are given. 

But our aerial journey is becoming too long : we must 
retrace our way from the happy valley of the Connecti- 
cut. Let us go westward, and descend near to the earth 
— here we see our own Hudson, carrying on its bosom 
innumerable little objects, passing and repassing in rapid 
motion, as if actuated by a spirit of intelligence ; but, al- 
though not gifted with intelligence themselves, they are 
directed in their course by intelligent minds, and filled 
with rational beings, intent on business or pleasure. These 
steam-boats exhibit one of the proudest victories which 
mind has ever achieved over matter; two destructive 
elements being made subservient to man's convenience, 
and obedient to his will. 

We have now arrived at the place where the Hudson 



MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 125 

viver ceases to be navigable ; and here, in a little flour- 
ishing city on its eastern bank, we will alight from our 
imaginary balloon, and close our voyage of discovery. 

Such are some of the ohservations of physical geogra- 
phy ; in order to understand it, you must in imagination 
combine at one view the great features of nature — 
oceans, lakes and rivers, continents and islands, table- 
lands, basins, plains, valleys, and deserts : these are all 
the subjects of this science. 

The geological character of mountains, and the for- 
mation of countries are also to be noticed. When you 
know the geological features of a country, you can form 
a probable estimate of the character of its soil, the quan- 
tity of its water, and the number and appearance of its 
caves. You can tell whether it is likely to contain coal 
or salt mines, iron or precious metals, and even the 
plants which would probably be found in it. What is 
still more wonderful, you can form some judgment of 
the moral character of a people, fiom the nature of the 
soil. Switzerland is famous for its rugged soil, its pure 
air and water, and its patriotic and independent inhabit- 
ants. It is a primitive country, and such a formation 
requires hard labor for its cultivation. The effect of la- 
bor is to form the character of a people to habits of or- 
der and industry, and to render them independent of oth- 
ers : independence produces a nobleness and elevation 
of feeling, and courage to resist oppression. 

A country having a secondary or alluvial formation, is 
generally fertile ; nature almost spontaneously brings 
ibrth sustenance for its inhabitants. Not compelled to 
labor, and ignorant of intellectual enjoyments, man ue- 
generates ; he seeks only to gratify his senses, and easi- 
ly becomes a slave to those who will protect and 
defend him. Slavery, in its turn, still further debases the 
wretched human being. The situation of the peasants 
of Turkey, of Spain and Italy, may illustrate the influ- 
ence of a fertile soil upon the moral character of a peo- 
ple. 

But I have, in remarking on national character, anti- 
cipated what belongs to Civil or Political Geography, 
whose province it is to describe the moral condition of 
U* 



126 MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 

mankind, including their religion, forms of government, 
moral and intellectual improvement. This view of the 
world is sometimes called Historical geography. 

You will now see that geography is not a science of 
memory alone, consisting of mechanical recitations of 
the names of places, and the situations of countries, 
rivers and mountains. It is necessary to learn to view 
things in detail, and then in general, to compare and 
reflect in order to become acquainted with geog- 
raphy. And thus you perceive, that although this 
science is highly useful for the information which it com- 
municates, it also, when properly investigated, serves to 
develope and improve the faculties of reason and judg- 
ment, and elevate the moral character. 

Besides Mathematical, Astronomical, Physical and 
Political geography there is another department of this 
science called Statistical geography, or that which gives an 
account of the length and breadth, population, bounda- 
ries and commerce of different countries. 

The study of geography tends to give enlarged and 
comprehensive views respecting the earth we inhabit. 
While this science was unknown, and mankind in igno- 
rance of the world on which they lived, the most dark 
and superstitious fears prevailed with respect to the 
living beings who were supposed to exist in certain un- 
known regions. Even the Romans, enlightened as they 
were for the period in which they flourished, supposed 
the hordes of barbarians who poured in upon them, were 
absolutely without limits, as to numbers, or in the extent 
of their country. Panic-struck by these terrors, the 
Romans thus became an easy prey to a people whom 
they thought it would be in vain to resist. 

The descendants of the Romans, afterwards con- 
demned the philosopher Galileo to perpetual imprison- 
ment, for daring to assert that the earth was round, and 
moved on an imaginary axis. Spigelius, a bishop of 
Topsal in Sweden, was burnt at the stake, for expressing 
his belief in the gobularform of the earth, and that there 
might be people who had night when it was day in 
Sweden, and day when it was night there, or that were 



MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 127 

their antipodes* This doctrine was by the superstitious 
and ignorant monks declared to be ' a proposition absurd 
in its very nature, false in philosophy, heretical in 
religion, and contrary to the holy Scriptures.' 

The discovery of the true figure of the earth has been 
of incalculable advantage to mankind. Indeed, we 
cannot, without pity, think of the period when the 
European knew nothing of the earth, but of his own 
comparatively little continent. All else was dark and 
mysterious as the regions beyond the grave. 

You have read of the difficulties encountered by 
Columbus in obtaining the assistance necessary to pros- 
ecute a voyage, in which he believed that some great 
discovery awaited him. We cannot, however, appreciate 
the feelings which agitated him, as hope and fear for the 
desired aid prevailed. By study and observation he 
had become convinced of the spherical figure of the 
earth, and at first only thought of finding a better way 
of sailing to the East Indies than by the long and dan- 
gerous passage around the Cape of Good Hope ; but on 
further reflection, he thought a wise Creator would not 
have made the proportion of water so much greater than 
that of land, and therefore inferred the existence of 
another continent. 

While his mind was laboring with these grand ideas, 
and impressed with the immense importance of ascertain- 
ing the correctness of his reasoning, he was, as is often the 
case with those who attempt great things, treated by many 
as a madman, or a fool. We may, my dear pupils, justly feel 
a pride in the thought, that a woman was the first to com- 
prehend the sublime conceptions of Columbus ; and provi- 
dential indeed does it appear that this woman was a sove- 
reign, able as well as willing to aid the genius which 
her mind appreciated. Isabella — let the daughters of 
Columbia ever hold thy name in reverence ! let them re- 
member that, without thy aid, their own dear country 
might even now have been a wilderness, shared by 
the savage heathen and the scarcely more savage beast 
of the forest ! 

* Antipodes is from two Greek words, anti, opposite, and podos, 
feet ; meaning people who live on opposite sides of the globe, and 
whose feet are therefore directly opposite. 



128 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 



Ancient Geography. 

Geography is properly divided into Ancient and Modern. 
Acient geography commences with describing coun- 
tries known in the remotest antiquity respecting which 
we have any information. Although writers agree in 
dividing both geography and history into ancient and 
modern, they differ as to the point of time most proper 
for their separation. While some fix this at the extinc- 
tion of the western empire of the Romans, A. D. 476, 
others prefer to divide at the commencement of the New 
Western Empire, under Charlemagne, A. D. 800. A 
third period, and one which evidently seems the most 
proper, is the birth of our Saviour. 

This is considered as having taken place 4004 years 
after the creation. The whole Christian world now reck- 
on time from the birth of Christ : thus we date A. D. 
[Anno Domini, in the year of our Lord) 1831 ; that is, 
so many years have passed since his birth. So in public 
acts, officers of the government date from the indepen- 
dence of our country, it being at this time the fifty-seventh 
year of American Independence. 

Should there be those eighteen hundred years hence 
who should dispute the fact of such an event as the re- 
volution in which America became an independent na- 
tion, and at. the same time should public acts continue 
to be dated from this event, would not this very circum- 
stance substantiate the fact? 

When did any people or any individual begin to date 
from an event which never took place ? Were there no 
other proof of the appearance in the world of Jesus Christ, 
it would seem as if the fact of so great a portion of 
mankind reckoning from such an event might convince 
the most sceptical. Or, if he was nothing more than an 
obscure carpenter, who imposed on a few ignorant fisher- 
men, until he was finally put to death for his blasphemies, 
how has it happened that his birth, after a period of more 
than 1800 years, is considered a more important event than 
the creation itself? Even the Deist, who ridicules the Chris- 
tian for what he calls his credulity, dates from the birth of 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 129 

Christ. Which, we would ask, is the more credulous, 
the sceptic who believes things can happen without a 
cause, or he who relies on evidence the most certain ? 

The study of ancient geography is not to be commen- 
ced before some aquaintance with modern. After learn- 
ing in the latter the situations and boundaries of places, 
it is not difficult to connect with them the names by 
which they were anciently known : thus Caledonia easi- 
ly becomes associated with the more modern name Scot- 
land, Hibernia with Ireland, Hispania with Spain, Gaul 
with France, &c. Ancient geography teaches how 
much the boundaries and extent of countries have changed 
and what part of the world was known or unknown to 
the ancients.* 

A knowledge of Ancient geography is very important 
to a right understanding of the sacred writings, and 
Ancient History. The nations mentioned in the Old 
Testament have long since ceased to exist. Of the As- 
syrian, Babylonian, Egyptian and Syrian empires, noth- 
ing but the names now remains. Their proud capitals, 
Nineveh, Babylon, Thebes, Tyre and Sidon have disap- 
peared fiom the earth, and scarcely do we know the 
places which they once so proudly occupied. 

The cities of the Canaanites, the Midianites, and Phi- 
listines, with those of their conquerors, the Jews, are 
all swept from existence. The boundaries of these 
nations, ancient geography cannot well define; all 
that it can do, is to point out their supposed loca- 
tion. Of the people who inhabited these ancient coun- 
tries, not a remnant remains, except of the Hebrews 
or Jews ; and they wandering and dispersed over the 
face of the earth ; though, still preserving their ancient 
customs and religion, prove the truth of the sacred volume, 
which, while it prophesied their fate as a nation, foretold 
that they would continue a separate people. A part of 

* For further particulars respecting the proper method of pur- 
suing this study, reference may be had to Mrs. Willard's An- 
cient Geography, which brings within a small ccmpass most of 
the important tacts of the science, and designates a philosophical 
mode of classifying and arranging them. Lavoisne's Ancient At- 
las is very valuable for the advanced student, but is on a scale too 
large for schools. 



130 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

the prophesy respecting them, viz. that they shall be 
collected and restored to their ancient city, Jerusalem, 
still remains to be fulfilled. The Christian world are 
looking for this event, as the commencement of the Mil- 
lenium or that period, ' when the whole earth shall 
be covered with the knowledge of the Lord as the waters 
cover the sea.' 

A knowledge of Ancient geography is of great assist- 
ance in understanding the historical parts of the New 
Testament. The events there recorded become more 
deeply impressed upon the mind when the location of the 
places where they occurred is understood. This science 
points out Bethlehem, where our Saviour was born ; Naza- 
reth, where he dwelt with his parents ; the river Jordan, 
where he was baptized ; the desert of Judea, where he fast- 
ed forty days ; Cana, where he wrought his first miracle ; 
the various countries over which he traveled ; the lakes 
and seas which he crossed, and finally, Jerusalem, where 
he was crucified. 

Ignorant of the situation of these places, it is 
impossible for a person to feel that interest in the narra- 
tive with which they are connected, that would otherwise 
be experienced. Suppose upon an ancient map you fol- 
low our Saviour in the various events of his life : you 
find the Mount of Olives, overlooking Jerusalem, where, 
beholding that city, he wept over it ; here the garden 
of Gethsemane, where, being in agony under the burthen 
of our sins, he prayed; and there another mount, that of 
Calvary, where, the great work of our redemption being 
completed, ' the Saviour bowed his head and said, It is 
finished.' Does not the tracing of these locations help 
you to believe and realize the great truths of Christianity 1 

Without being accustomed to the assistance of sensi- 
ble delineations, people are in danger of reading the his- 
torical parts of the Scriptures, as they would some tale of 
fancy, which, floating through the imagination, leaves 
upon the mind no lasting impression. Not that one can- 
not be a Christian without a knowledge of ancient geog- 
raphy, or indeed if ignorant of every human science ; for 
blessed be the name of Him who has given us ' the word 
of life,' it is so simple that even ' the way-faring man 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 131 

need not err therein.' The truths of Christianity appeal to 
the heart, not to the understanding, and are accessible to 
the most unenlightened. Religion, without science, is 
infinitely preferable to all knowledge without religion. 
But when religion and science meet in the same mind, 
both assume a higher character. Science may well be 
considered as the handmaid of piety ; for it will ever be 
such, unless perverted and abused. 

The physical department of Ancient geography varies 
but little from the modern in comparison with the 
changes in Civil geography. Yet even this does vary, 
and the very face of nature is changing. It is the busi- 
ness o( Geology, a science which throws much light upon 
Ancient Physical geography, to trace the progress of cre- 
ation, until the earth became a solid mass, fitted for the 
production of vegetable life and a habitation for man and 
beast. We learn that after this period, various agents 
have been, and still are, constantly producing changes in 
the features of our globe. Some operate slowly, as the 
air, which gradually dissolves solid substances, separ- 
ating rocks into stones and crumbling these into pebbles 
and sand. This sand, by the water of rivers is washed 
towards their mouths, forming new land or deltas, or ac- 
cumulating in the middle of rivers, and forming islands. 
Thus the higher parts of countries are gradually crumb- 
ling away, while the lower parts accumulate. Rivers 
are often blocked up by such accumulations, and their 
channels turned in new directions. 

The region around us is probably much changed 
since the creation, or even since the flood, an event 
which produced a change in the physical aspect of the 
globe, greater than any other, or perhaps all others, 
which have ever occurred. It is impossible to pronounce 
with certainty, respecting the changes which may have 
taken place in the region watered by the Hudson and its 
branches ; but while passing down its current and ob- 
serving the adjacent country on each side, I have been 
strongly impressed with the belief that the valley of this 
river was once a vast lake connected with the lakes on 
our northern border ; that the highlands and pallisadoes 
were the southern boundary of this lake. The waters 



132 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

forcibly operating upon these barriers, might by degrees 
have worn them away, until, opening for itself a pas- 
sage, this mighty mass rushed onward to the ocean. 
This however is mere hypothesis, which should never be 
confounded with demonstrated theories. Each one of you 
has a right to make her own suppositions, and to decide 
upon the probability of the event which has been suggested. 
If the region about us has once been covered with water, 
it seems probable that Mount Ida and Mount Olympus 
were islands in this great lake. 

About two miles from this city, on the east, there is a 
beautiful valley ; by following its course, you will find it 
winding its way towards the Hudson, resembling in ap- 
pearance the bed of a river whose channel has been 
turned, or whose waters are dried up. 

On the west side of the Hudson there is a singular 
ravine, often called the dry river; this, instead of the 
sloping banks of the beautiful vale on the eastern side, 
has abrupt and ragged shores, and a rocky, uneven bed : 
a little rill yet lingers among the rocks, convincing 
us, if further evidence were needed, that here has been a 
noble arm of the Hudson. Although on the eastern side, 
the vale of which I have spoken, bears less incontestible 
marks of its having been the bed of a river, I have 
little doubt but that too was covered with water tributary 
to the large river. Referring then to the supposition 
that the Hudson river is but the remains of a great lake, 
which suddenly discharged its waters into the Atlantic, 
we might suppose that when this event took place, many 
rivers were formed by the inequalities of the surface ; that 
these rivers in time have changed their channels, or 
gradually subsided into dry land. 

These hints are offered with a view to induce you to 
pay more attention to the natural features of the different 
places where you reside or through which you may trav- 
el ; to remark the indications of changes in physical geog- 
raphy, which will present themselves, when journeying 
through any region of country. Even scenes most famil- 
iar to you may never have been viewed in reference to any 
investigation respecting the causes of the appearances 
which present themselves : by bestowing a little attention 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 133 

to these subjects, nature will appear in a new aspect and 
you will almost begin to fancy that you have hitherto 
walked blind-folded through her curious and wonderful 
scenes. 

Although in many cases we merely infer changes in 
the physical character of countries from certain indica- 
tions, yet we learn from history, of cities being sunk by 
earthquakes or overwhelmed by the lava of volcanoes, of 
islands suddenly sinking into the earth, and of other 
islands being thrown up from the bottom of the sea. 

But have you yet studied the Ancient Geography of 
your own country 1 — We have said that geography should 
begin at home ; why then have none of you been taught the 
Ancient Geography of the United States 1 — It is because 
we have no ancient geography. We are not only a new na- 
tion, but the country we inhabit is new ; — not of a newer 
creation than that which we call the old world, but until it 
was discovered in 1492, it had been inhabited by a race of 
men, who, ignorant of the arts of printing or writing, left 
no records of what they or their country once were. 
Our ancestors a little more than two hundred years since 
came to this newly discovered country ; they found here 
a savage people, who knew nothing of the arts and re- 
finements of civilized life ; who had no history, no an- 
cient or modern geography of their country. They 
told oar ancestors what their fathers had said to them, 
of their comino- from the far west towards the east. But 
tradition points out no ancient cities like those which 
from time to time have nourished in the old world. 

The most ancient towns in New-England are Ply- 
mouth, Boston, Hartford, and New-Haven ; in the Mid- 
dle States, New- York and Albany ; and in the Southern 
States, Jamestown and Savannah. These are however 
young and mostly flourishing. Antiquity has not yet 
shrouded any of our cities or heroes in the obscurity and 
indistinctness necessary to the sublime. Our Washing- 
ton is remembered by many who now live, and who 
knew him to be but a man, though a great and good one. 
Had he lived in ancient days, his memory would have re- 
ceived divine honors : he would have been enrolled among 
12 



134 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

the demi-gods, with Perseus, Hercules, ^Esculapius, and 
other heroes and benefactors of mankind. 

The study of ancient geography, in bringing you ac- 
quainted with places no longer in existence, cannot fail 
to suggest the transient nature of all human glory and 
perfection. The works of man are all perishable ; and 
yet these are more enduring than their authors. 

To toil a few short years, and then pass away, is the 
destiny of man, as regards this world ; but the most mo- 
mentous consequences depend on these few years ; even 
the eternal destiny of the immortal soul. Could we pen- 
etrate the unseen world of spirits, as we can in some de- 
gree the dim twilight of antiquity, we should behold the 
effects of the short period of earthly existence upon our 
fellow moitals who have gone before us ; for the scriptures 
affirm, that ' their works follow them.' 

This consideration should then give new vigor to our 
efforts ; — true, marble palaces and temples, and all the 
works of art crumble into ruins, yet the moral deeds of 
mankind, though it may seem that they too are carried 
down the mighty stream of time, are arrested in their 
progress, recorded in that awful register of human ac- 
tions which is to remain sealed till the 'great day of ac- 
counts.' Who among us will not have a fearful list of 
omissions of duty, of commissions of offences to answer 
for ? Not a single human being is without sin, not one 
is guiltless. And yet we read in the word of God, that 
without holiness no man shall see the Lord. What then, 
shall we do? are we to be forever lost, shut out from his 
presence, who alone can make us glorious and happy? 
Where shall we obtain the holiness that we need ? Where 
shall we wash away the guilt with which our souls are 
stained ? 

Listen, my dear pupils, to the words of the book of 
life. ' The blood of Christ cleanseth from all sin. He 
was wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for 
our iniquities, with his stripes we are healed. His blood 
is shed for the remission of sins. If we confess our sins 
he is faithful and just to forgive us our sins, and cleanse 
us from all unrighteousness.' 



HISTORY. 



135 



LECTURE XIII. 

History. 

Having acquired some knowledge of geography, the 
mind naturally seeks for information respecting the living 
and moral agents, who have inhabited the earth since the 
period of its creation. There are two methods of studying 
history ; first by commencing with the earliest periods of 
society, and descending to the present time ; or second, an 
inverse or ascending order. 

Which of these methods is that of nature? Does 
the child feel most interested in hearing accounts of 
what befel his grandparents, or in learning the fortunes 
of Alexander or Caesar? We know that he will take 
a deeper interest in the history of his own ancestors, 
and of events which have had an important influence 
upon his own circumstances in life. Pioceeding then 
upon this view of the operations of the mind, we would 
recommend that the beginner should commence with 
the history of his own age and country. It would be de- 
sirable that every child should first be presented with 
the history of his own town, then of his own state, and 
after, that of the whole United Republic. This method 
has but recently been the subject of discussion among 
those who have the charge of youth ; and with the books 
now before the public, it is not easy to conduct a course of 
history in the manner above suggested. In this institution 
we have only partially adopted it ; as Mrs. Willard's Amer- 
ican History is too large for younger pupils, we still con- 
tinue to give them the former course, viz. ancient histo- 
ry first, then modern, closing their historical studies with 
the American History* This method is agreeable to 
the order of time ; indeed when a pupil commences with 
his own age, and country, and ascends in the course of 
time, he should, at the last pursue the descending course, 

* The publication of the Abridgment of this History since this 
lecture was written, has obviated the objection above made, viz. 
the want of a suitable work for beginners on the new plan. 



136 HISTORY. 

as in this way can be taken a more philosophical view of 
the connexion between causes and their corresponding 
effects. 

The term history is derived from the Latin word histo- 
ria, and literally signifies a relation of facts; thus we term 
that science which considers facts with respect to the ob- 
jects of the different kingdoms of nature, animal, vegeta- 
ble and mineral, Natural History, 

We are now lo confine our attention to Civil Histo- 
ry, or that branch which presents us with a record of 
the characters and actions of mankind. Cicero defines 
civil history to be ' the testimony of time, the light of 
truth, the messenger of antiquity , and the school of life. 3 
History is a word of extensive application, but when 
used to signify a particular branch of education it has re- 
lation to the origin, progress and decline of nations, to 
the distinguished individuals who have exerted an influ- 
ence upon the public welfare ; and to the progress of lit- 
erature, science and arts. History is indeed something 
more than a knowledge of facts ; it leads to a considera- 
tion of those principles in human nature which give their 
origin to the various forms of society, from which spring 
the institutions, laws, and usages of man in his rudest as 
well as most polished state. History teaches the princi- 
ples on which nations are founded, and points out the 
means of improvement, as well as the causes of their de- 
pravity and decline. 

But it is the mind matured and practised to judge of 
causes by effects, that must consider history under its 
true philosophical aspect ; by the young pupil it must 
be chiefly viewed in relation to events. 

Civil history is either sacred or profane. Sacred his- 
tory is that which is contained in the bible. To this ho- 
ly volume we are indebted for our knowledge of the ori- 
gin of our planet. 

' In the beginning God created the heaven and the 
earth. 5 When was this beginning ? — This is a fearful and 
overwhelming question, carrying the mind back to that 
period when the Deity existed alone in the majesty of his 
own glory, and the vast conception of his infinite mind 
had not yet become manifest in material creations- 



HISTORY. 137 

But matter must have had a beginning ; — it could not 
have created itself; — God must have existed forever, 
for he is the first cause of all things, and there is none 
greater than himself. Nothing can be brought into ex- 
istence without a cause ; what then could have created 
God ? We see that should we attempt to go further, 
and find some power which could have created the Dei- 
ty, we must go another step, and ask how that power came 
to exist, and thus we might go on ad infinitum ; not in 
any manner removing the dilhculty, but multiplying mys- 
teries at every proposition. This is what the Pagans 
did in their mythology. For although they called Jupi- 
ter the father of gods and men ; they accounted for his 
existence, by saying that he was the son of Saturn ; 
Saturn was the son of Heaven and Earth, who were the 
children of Chaos. How Chaos or matter, in an unform- 
ed state, came into existence, the Pagans, in their wis- 
dom, did not attempt to explain. 

But let us turn from the clildish absurdities of hea- 
thenism to the light of revelation. ' In the beginning 
God made the heaven and the earth.' God then has 
existed from eternity; ' he is from everlasting to everlast- 
ing, without beginning of days or end of time.' Here I 
would ask you for a moment to consider the language of 
the sacred history ; — was this beginning , the period when 
our earth began to take its present form ? This is the 
belief of many, especially of those who are little ac- 
quainted with geological facts, and who have not paid 
strict attention to the import of the language. 

The opinion of others is that the ' beginning,' was that 
eventful period, when the elements of all the matter 
which now exists in the universe were brought into 
existence. Respecting what took place after this august 
beginning of material existence, except as relates to our 
earth, the sacred writings do not inform us. The histo- 
ry of other worlds is not known to us ; nor for how many 
centuries of ages they might have been going on to per- 
fection, before the Almighty thought proper .to shape into 
its present form the matter which composes our globe. 
It seems probable that between the fact recorded in the first 
verse of Genesis, and that in the succeeding verse, a vast 
12* 



138 HISTORY. 

interval of time had elapsed. But the sacred historian 
leaves that period as not relating to man, and hastens to 
speak of the earth. This, he says, ' was without/brm, and 
it was void, (or a chaotic mass) and darkness was upon 
the face of the deep, and the Spirit of God moved upon 
theface of the waters.' It appears that this formless mass 
was in a fluid state ; and geology furnishes abundant 
evidence to prove that from such a state our globe must 
gradually have become consolidated. 

The spirit or power of God now operating upon this 
chaotic mass, from darkness produced light, and a 
series of changes at length brought the earth into a hab- 
itable state. Man was then formed, not of matter creat- 
ed newly for that purpose ; but his body was made of the 
dust of the earth, and animated by the breath of the 
Almighty. 

In the history we are now examining, we thus learn the 
production of our earth, and the origin of the human 
race. We find Adam and his companion, placed in the 
delightful garden of Eden, favored with the company 
of angels, and personal communion with God himself. 
But yielding to temptation, cmr first parents disobeyed 
the commands of their Maker, and thus * brought death 
into the world and all our wo.' Here we see the origin 
of evil; a subject, about which metaphysicians have 
been much perplexed. For the same ambition which 
led our first parents to sin, still urges their descendants, 
to study into things transcending their own limited 
faculties, and to pass by those simple records which the 
Almighty himself has caused to be written for their 
instruction. 

Let us now take a rapid review of the records of 
our race after sin had entered the world. A brother, 
urged by envy raises his hand against an innocent 
brother, and for the first time death appears among men. 
Cain is driven forth a vagabond upon the face of the 
earth. It appears that he built a city called Enoch, 
after the name of his son ; this city was probably nothing 
more than a collection of his descendants into one place, 
where they inhabited rude and temporary dwellings. 

Although some ' walked with God/ yet there were 



HISTORY. 139 

many who followed their own evil devices, until wick- 
edness had so much increased upon the earth, that the 
Almighty resolved upon the destruction of the whole 
human race by a deluge. Noah and his family alone 
were spared, by taking refuge according to divine coun- 
sel, in an ark, constructed in a peculiar manner. The 
deluge is supposed to have taken place about lbOO years 
after the creation. The earth was re-peopled by the 
three sons of Noah. Before the flood mankind lived to 
the age of several hundred years ; after this time the 
period of human life gradually shortened to seventy or 
eighty. 

The scene of the great events which we have now so 
hastily sketched, was in Asia. The place where was 
situated the garden of Eden is not known ; for after the 
fall, its beauty and loveliness disappeared, thorns and 
thistles sprung up, and man was obliged to gain his 
subsistence by the sweat of his brow. 

No records except the sacred writings give us any know- 
ledge of the history of man previous to the period of the 
deluge. These writings were carefully preserved by the 
Jews. They were the descendants of Abraham, a man es- 
pecially consecrated by God as the father of a chosen race. 
Moses, the author of the five first books of the Bible, or 
of the pentateuch as they are sometimes called, is the 
most ancient historian of whom we have any knowledge. 
Sacred history, after the deluge is mostly confined to 
the Jewish nation. 

Profcne history is so called in contradistinction to sa- 
cred. Of profane historians, the most ancient is Homer ; 
but his relations are so mingled with fiction, that his feeble 
light serves but to manifest the thick darkness of the 
period in which he lived. His poems chiefly relate to 
Greece and the coasts of Asia Minor, the Trojan war, 
and the exploits of Grecian and Trojan heroes. 

The first writer of profane history who can be relied 
upon is Herodotus, who wrote after the invasion of 
Greece by Xerxes ; Thucydides and Xenophon appear- 
ed soon after, and these three writers may be considered 
as the fathers of Grecian history. At this period, 
eloquence w as the idol of the Grecian people ; and as 



140 HISTORY. 

their historians read their own works in popular assem- 
blies, they sought rather to adorn them with the beauties 
of style than to give a dry narrative of facts : their writ- 
ings were but a kind of historical romance, in which 
their own countrymen figured as heroes, and their own 
country was extolled with all the enthusiasm of the most 
glowing imagination. They were the Scotts and Coo 
pers of ancient days. 

The Roman historians, Polybius, Tacitus and Sallust 
were more philosophical and dispassionate. Livy was 
richer in the ornament of language, but less correct. 
Caesar wrote chiefly of his own wars, and described 
military operations in a more vivid and distinct manner 
than any succeeding writer has done. Had Napoleon 
Bonaparte written the history of his own campaigns, he 
would probably have equalled Julius Caesar in concise- 
ness and vividness of language as he did in military 
skill and unbounded ambition. 

As we descend to more modern times we meet in 
French with the writings of Bossuet, Voltaire, &,c. Among 
English writers, Hume, Robertson and Gibbon are con- 
spicuous. 

Our own country, young in its literature, already pos- 
sesses historians of acknowledged merit. To trace our 
history, from the little band of pilgrims who first landed 
on Plymouth rock, through the trials of our forefathers 
by savage cruelty, famine and pestilence, and to follow the 
patriots of the revolution through their struggle for inde- 
pendence, are employments which have warmed the heart 
and engaged the pen of many a gifted American. 

But what, let me ask is the advantage of studying his- 
tory 1 Is it necessary only that your minds should be 
stored with a mass of facts 1 that you should know that in 
such a year the pilgrims landed, that in such a year com- 
menced, and in such a year ended the revolutionary war? 
All knowledge to be useful must have its practical ap- 
plication. In the character of the New-England fathers 
we see many noble examples of heroism amidst dangers 
and discouragements. In American history we see many 
of our own sex leaving their native country, and the 
elegancies of refined society, that they may, in a savage 



HISTORY. 141 

wilderness across the distant ocean find a ' Faith's pure 
shrine, and freedom to worship God.' From such exam- 
ples we should derive important moral lessons ; — from the 
conduct of those who have preceded us, we can gain 
that most important knowledge, the knowledge of human 
nature, of ourselves. 

From whence come wars and fightings 1 Come they 
not from the evil passions of men ? But none of you are 
heroes or conquerors, who would wade through blood to 
reach a throne, or post of honor ! True, but have none 
of you, some darling object in the attainment of which, 
you would trample on the feelings, or wound the hearts 
of your companions. Do you never wage the war of 
tongues, which often sting like adders, and poison the 
peace of a fellow being? When you read in history the 
fate of the ambitious and contentious, you should learn 
from this, that they who sow the seeds of strife reap 
the fruit of bitterness. 

The chain of historical knowledge is by no means an 
unbroken one. There have always been many nations, 
ignorant of written language ; and the historical re- 
cords of antiquity are far from being all known to us. 
The histories of the eastern or oriental natiuiis, Egyp- 
tians, Syrians, Chaldeans and Persians have mostly per- 
ished. The Greek and Roman histories, and the holy 
scriptures, contain all the authentic accounts of a pe- 
riod anterior to the foundation of Rome. The Roman 
history is the only one which throws light upon a period 
of nearly five hundred years after Christ. After the fall 
of the empire of the west, the kingdoms of Spain, France, 
Italy and England, have each its particular history ; and 
about this time commence the histories of Germany, 
Hungary, Sweden and Denmark. 

Respecting the countries now Mahometan, Egypt, 
Syria, Persia, and the northern part of Africa, we know 
little of their history for the last thousand years. The 
Chinese history is chiefly a collection of fables and ab- 
surd traditions. Of the American Indians we have no 
authentic history beyond the time of the discovery of the 
western continent. We see how little then is known of 
the whole actual extent of the globe during the course of 



142 HISTORY. 

ages which have passed since the creation. Yet there 
are histories without number, but it is only by a careful 
selection and perusal of the best authors, that much ad- 
vantage can be derived from them. In early youth, his- 
tory interests the mind chiefly on account of the pleasure 
derived from narrative. As the pupil advances in life, his- 
tory ought to be regarded under a new aspect, and studied 
both for the sake of gaining information and forming the 
mind to habits of discrimination and reflection. One who 
reads history merely for amusement, or who loads the 
memory with facts, without regard to their importance, 
or examination of their causes, may read much, and 
yet neither know men, manners, laws, arts and sciences, 
neither the past or the present world, nor the relations 
which they bear to each other. 

A modern French writer* on education advises the stu- 
dent in history to make use of books of extracts, in which 
facts and principles may be noted in a definite and sys- 
tematic order. By this means, the student will, in pro- 
cess of time, possess a collection of practical truths, and 
of illustrations of principle, arranged in order and fur- 
nishing instruction at once solid, diversified and complete. 
The following are some of the subjects proposed for 
heads or titles of the historical common place booh. 

1. Education, or tlie art of forming the character of 
man. Collect and class as far as possible, by age and by 
nation, the laws, customs, and facts relative to public 
or private education, in different ages and among differ- 
ent people. 

2. Politics or the art of rendering a people happy. 
Collect the facts, observations, laws, customs, and man- 
ners which appear to have had an influence upon this 
subject. 

3. Women — Their influence considered among all peo- 
ple andin all ages. Collect the facts, observations, anec- 
dotes, portraits of characters; in.short, anything which 
has had an influence, and still has a bearing upon the 
condition of females. Point out the effects, salutary or 

* M. Julien, now Editor of the { Revue EncyclopediqueJ one of 
the first literary journals in France, 



HISTORY. 143 

otherwise, which different modes of religion, education, 
state of society and manners have had upon the con- 
dition and character of women, and, through them, upon 
the whole human race. 

4. Comparison of great men. Arrange according 
to age, nation and rank the distinguished persons of his- 
tory. Describe their characters, the qualities for which 
they were distinguished, the points of resemblance be- 
tween them, the nature and degrees of influence ex- 
ercised by them upon the age in which they live, their 
profession, and their country. 

5. Religion. Study in different ages of the world, 
and among all nations, the different characters of relig- 
ious belief and institutions, their influence upon human 
character and happiness, the means employed for their 
support, and the effects produced by them upon society 
at large. 

This manner of reading, studying, analyzing, and gen- 
eralizing, will have an important influence in forming the 
judgment, strengthening the memory, and giving enlarg- 
ed and correct views of persons and actions, with habits 
of careful observation, and of impartial comparison. 

The method above delineated is particularly recom- 
mended for your private reading, especially when you 
shall have left school, and can no longer have the advan- 
tage of hearing observations and explanations on the sub- 
jects of your study. The same method might be followed 
with equal advantage in the pursuit of other branches of 
knowledge as well as history. It would be advisable for 
every young lady, after leaving school, to commence a 
systematic course of historical reading. During the pro- 
gress of school education, not more than an outline of 
general history can be given. This outline, however, 
will be of great importance in subsequent reading. A 
good system of chronology, or classification of events in 
the order of time, cannot be too early learned: with this, 
and an outline of general history, the facts afterwards 
gained will naturally arrange themselves under their re- 
spective epochas. On the contrary, without a syste- 
matic arrangement of historical facts, reading will he 
•of little use. 



144 HISTORY. 

Parents sometimes say they are indifferent as to hav- 
ing their children study history at school, as they can 
read it at home. But history ought to be studied, in or- 
der that it may be afterwards read to advantage. It 
should early be associated with geography ; and maps 
should be drawn and used at each day's recitation. 
As I intend hereafter to give you my ideas on the sub- 
ject of a choice of books for reading after you have left 
school,* I shall not at this time enter minutely into the 
consideration of a course of historical reading. 

After becoming acquainted with Scripture History, it 
would be well to read Josephus's Jewish Antiquities, and 
Rollin's Ancient History. 

By the assistance of these works and the use of an- 
cient maps, you will acquire correct and extensive views 
of ancient history. Plutarch's Lives of the illustrious 
men of antiquity, is a work highly interesting as well as 
useful. It not only gives the history of great men as 
they appeared in public and political life, but shows their 
private and domestic characters, and unfolds their secret 
sentiments and springs of action. When contemplating 
the characters of the great and good, we feel the in- 
fluence and utility of that principle of our nature which 
Lord Kames has happily called the sympathetic emotion. 
We are seized with the desire of imitating and re- 
sembling what we admire. Were this sympathetic 
emotion always confined to virtue, the influence of bad 
examples would be less hurtful to society ; but unhap- 
pily, every thing which the young mind admires, it is 
prone to imitate. 

A daring, and audacious courage always finds admi- 
rers ; and that ambition which would wade through 
blood to reach a distinguished post, seems grand and 
heroic. It is however very important that the young 
should learn to look on actions and motives as stripped of 
their dazzling accompaniments; then will virtue and 
greatness alone, excite the sympathetic emotion which 
prompts the desire of imitating. Then will the character 

* This subject will be treated of iu the second volume of the 
Lectures. 



HISTORY. 145 

of the just and benevolent Trojan appear far more lovely 
and desirable than that of the aspiring and ambitious Cae- 
sar, and the grasping selfishness of Buonaparte sink before 
the generous magnanimity of a Washington. 

The Travels of Anacharsis the Younger is a work 
of much merit. The author is the Abbe Barthelemy ; 
he who assumes the name of Anacharsis after the Scy- 
thian sage of that name, who was ranked with Thales, 
Solon, and others, termed the seven wise men of Greece. 

Barthelemy, under the name of Anacharsis, supposes 
himself to be travelling in Greece at the time of Philip 
of Macedon, and during the youth of his son Alexander 
the Great ; yet as the historical events related and the facts 
given are all in strict accordance with the truth, he is thus 
enabled to present a lively picture of the events of that pe- 
riod. He carries his history back to the earliest periods of 
Greece. He lays before us the laws, form of government, 
customs, religion, and domestic life of the various people 
who composed the confederation of the Grecian repub- 
lic : he explains their mythology, gives the characters 
and opinions of their philosophers, describes their poetry 
and improvements, in the arts of painting, music, and sculp- 
ture. You seem to be transported to Greece in the days 
of her glory, and to see before you her beautiful works 
of art, to hear the thundering eloquence of her ora- 
tors, the majestic numbers of her poets, and the wis- 
dom of her sages. After this work should follow 
some good history of the rise, progress, and decay of the 
Roman empire. The Roman historians you will read 
in pursuing your classical studies, but it is not to be ex- 
pected that many of you will become sufficiently familiar 
with their original language to read it with facility. 
Gibbon's Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire is well writ- 
ten, and were it not for the hostility to the christian 
religion which occasionally soils his otherwise beauti- 
ful pages, it might be recommended ; — indeed, as it is, 
there is little danger that any one educated and set- 
tled in a religious faith should be otherwise affected by 
his occasional sneers, than with pjjy for the mind which 
could thus blind itself to what is most glorious of all the 
works of Almighty benevolence. 
13 



146 HISTORY. 

Vertot's Roman Revolution gives an interesting ao* 
count of the origin, manners and customs of that repub- 
lic; it exhibits the political agitations to which these 
people were subject, with their effect in changing and 
modifying their government. 

The history of the middle ages is well given by Con- 
dillac. Accustomed to reason with metaphysical accura- 
cy, this philosopher was well qualified for a historian, 
whose duty it is to trace effects to their cause. He ex- 
plains the origin of the feudal power or authority of the 
barons; the causes which produced the institutions and 
enthusiasm of chivalry, and its influence upon the 
manners, morals and religion of those days, lie shows 
the causes which retarded the progress of science dur- 
ing that dark period, when almost all the learning was in 
the hands of .superstitious monks, and enthusiastic alchy- 
inists, and gives a clear and interesting account of the 
revival of learning in the fifteenth century. 

Although history is usually divided into Ancient and 
Modern, it seems very proper to consider that of the mid- 
dle or dark ages under one point of view. Middle Histo- 
ry is considered as including that portion of time which 
intervened between the destruction of the western empire 
in the year 700, and the revival of letters at the discovery 
of America in the fifteenth century. 

\ iern Histories are numerous. Among the most 
useful are Hume's England, Robertson's Charles V., 
V r ire's Charles XII., Milot's France, Rayn-al's Political 
an Philosophical History of the Indies, Bigland's View 
of le World, Marshall's Washington, and Pitkin's and 
Will ird's United States. 

There is one view in which history appears peculiarly 
interesting to femaies; it is with respect to the gradual 
changes which have taken place in the condition of their 
own sex. 

In the garden of Eden, woman was cherished as the 
te j^r friend and intelligent companion of man. We 
have reason to believe this, both from the language of the 
Scrpture, ' She is bone of my bone, and flesh of my 
flesh,' and from the perfect condition of man at that 
period. 



MYTHOLOGY. 147 

For in order that society should exist in its perfect 
state, woman must hold that rank and exercise that influ- 
ence for which God designed her. But alas! woman 
was frail, she listened to the voice of flattery, disobeyed 
the command of God, and influenced her companion to 
become an accomplice in guilt. From that time, she was 
degraded, and long ages saw her a servile being, counted 
with his flocks and herds as the property of man. 

At length light dawns upon the condition of this poor, 
abject being, whose spirit had been bent and broken oy 
servitude. The voice of pardoning mercy says, ' Wo- 
man go and sin no more.' The Saviour of the world 
looks with pity upon the suffering being, who clings to 
him as her friend and heavenly benefactor: she follows 
him with the constancy of her nature, through evil 
report and good report; is last at his burial, and first at 
his resurrection. 

Since those glorious events, our sex have been honored 
wherevor the name of the Redeemer is worshipped. Ma- 
ny like Lois and Eunice, the grandmother and mother of 
Timothy, bishop of Ephesus, have been the honored in- 
struments of promoting the cause of true religion, and 
their praise has Leen heard in the churches. 



LECTURE XIV. 

Mythology . 



The study of Mythology, which formerly held a high 
rank in the education of both sexes, especially in Europe, 
has been superseded by more valuable sciences. It now 
appears absurd to introduce to the young mind the dis- 
gusting fables of ancient heathenism. Nothing can be 
more injurious in its tendency, upon the glowing imag- 
ination of youth, than many of the stories connected with 
the Grecian Mythology; and yet they are so interwoven with 
ancient classical literature, and so frequently alluded to by 
modern writers, especially some of the best English po- 



148 MYTHOLOGY. 

ets, that an acquaintance with these fictions seems neces- 
sary to those who aim at a knowledge of general literature. 
It becomes then important that mythology should be puri- 
fied of its grossness as far as possible, before a know- 
ledge of it is communicated to the young.* 

The term mythology is derived from the Greek mutJios, 
fable, and logos, knowledge. It is a science which 
treats of the fabulous opinions and doctrines of the an- 
cients respecting the deities, which they supposed pre- 
sided over the world, or influenced its affairs. The 
arts of painting and sculpture have done much to immor- 
talize the Grecian mythology. Some of the noblest speci- 
mens of ancient arts are to be seen in the embodying 
of mythological fable ; as the famous statues of the Venus 
de Medici, Apollo, Belvidere, &c. Architecture has 
also lent its aid to perpetuate this false and absurd re- 
ligion. Marble temples of the most exquisite workmanship 
and the most beautiful proportions, were erected in hon- 
or of the gods and goddesses. At Ephesus was the fa- 
mous temple of Diana, at Athens that of Olympian Jove, 
and at Delphos, that of Apollo. Within each temple 
was placed a statue of the deity, and before this the priest 
offered sacrifice. 

The Athenians becoming tired of these idle ceremo- 
nies, and losing all faith in their idols, at length erected 
an altar to the ' Unknown God. 5 Paul seizing upon this 
indication of a willingness to be taught a better faith, de- 
clared to them' ' Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship. 
Him declare I unto you.' 

I will now attempt to give a brief sketch of the sys- 
tem of Mythology as taught by the Grecians, and with 
some modifications received by the Romans. 

1 . The origin of the gods, and the celestial deities. Refer- 
ring to the beginning of all things, mythology supposes 
there was a time when only Chaos and Night existed ; they 
were the parents of Earth, who was the mother and wife 
of Uranus (or Heaven.) From Earth springs the hundred- 

* A translation of Moritz's Mythology, published by the Messrs. 
Carvill, of New York, is probably one of the best books for the 
young pupil which can be found on this subject in the English 
language. 



MYTHOLOGY. 149 

armed giants, Cottus, Gyges and Briareus, the huge, one- 
eyed Cyclops, Brontes, JSteropes and Arges. The gigantic 
Titans, Oceanus, the Titanides (or female Titans) are 
all the children ofEarth. Saturn, the youngest of the 
Titans marries Rhea, and from them descend Jupiter, 
Vesta, Ceres, Neptune, Juno, and Pluto. Jupiter, assist- 
ed by the Cyclops, who prepare his thunderbolts, de- 
clares war against Saturn and his brethren the Titans. 

The modern gods, or the descendants of Saturn and 
Rhea, now become distinct from the Titans, or ancient 
deities. War ensues between the two parties. After a 
conflict often years, Jupiter, by obtaining the assistance 
of the hundred armed giants, becomes victorious, and 
hurls his enemies into the gulf of Tartarus. 

The ancient realm of the Titans is now divided among 
the three victorious sons of Saturn. Jupiter takes the 
government of the heavens and earth, Neptune of the 
seas, and Pluto of the infernal regions. The hundred 
armed giants are appointed to guard the entrance into 
Tartarus, the prison of the Titans. 

Earth, indignant at the treatment of her children, the 
Titans, brings forth a new race to be their avengers ; 
these are the giants, who wage war anew upon Jupiter. 
The giants being subdued, Typhon, another child of Earth, 
and Tartarus appears. The upper part of the monster's 
body was covered with impenetrable feathers, and the 
lower parts enveloped in the folds of horrible serpents. 
This formidable enemy is at length conquered and se- 
cured under mount Etna. After this, two sons of Nep- 
tune, of immense strength and size of body, attempted 
to scale the heavens, by piling mountains on mountains, 
placing upon Olympus, Ossa, and upon Ossa, Pelion ; 
Apollo defeats this bold design by destroying the rebels 
with his arrows. Saturn, after his defeat, is said to have 
fled to Latium, where under his reign peace and justice 
flourished, and the earth spontaneously brought forth her 
increase, this was called the golden age. This account 
of Saturn is founded upon the supposed fact, that a 
king of Latium built, near the Tiber upon the hills, 
where Rome was afterwards founded, a city called Sa- 
tuinia. Saturn is represented upon ancient medallions, 
13* 



150 MYTHOLOGY. 

with a scythe in his hand ; he is a symbol of time which 
destroys all things, as he destroyed even his own chil- 
dren. 

Prometheus, a son of one of the Titans, amusing him- 
self in fashioning a figure after the image of the gods, 
is suddenly seized with the desire to perfect his work by 
giving it life and animation. Accordingly he steals from 
heaven a spark of the sacred fire, by means of which the 
inert mass becomes endued with warmth and intelligence ; 
this image he called man. Jupiter, resenting this in- 
fringement of his own creating power, orders Prometheus 
to be fastened to a rock, with a vulture feeding upon his 
bowels, which as fast as they were consumed continued to 
grow, so that he could have no hope that his torments 
would ever end. Pandora is sent by Jupiter to present 
mortals with a box, containing all the miseries to which 
human life has since been subject. Hope at the same 
time was given, to save them from despair. Jupiter, re- 
solving to destroy the race of men, sends upon the earth 
a deluge, which overwhelmed all but two persons, Du- 
calion and Pyrrha. Hercules afterwards reconciled 
Jupiter to Prometheus, and, killing the vulture, delivered 
him from his agonies. 

We see even that heathenism itself had borrowed 
light from the sacred oracles. The wars of Jupiter with 
the Titans and the giants, and their confinement in 
Tartarus, are analogous to the scripture account of the 
war against the fallen angels, and their expulsion to the 
regions of darkness. The deluge of the heathens seem 
evidently to refer to the flood which God brought upon 
the earth for its wickedness ; and Ducalion appears to 
be but another name for Noah. Hercules, who was the 
saviour of the world, delivering it from monsters, who 
had power over its inhabitants, seems to be an im- 
perfect and depraved conception of that Saviour who 
was afterwards to limit the power of Satan upon earth, 
to save man from the agonies of the vulture sin, which 
had so long preyed upon his heart, and to reconcile him 
to an Almighty Sovereign. And yet these representa- 
tions, analogous in some respects to facts communicated 
in the Scriptures, are so obscured by gross and palpable 



MYTHOLOGY. 151 

fictions, that we scarce know whether most to pity or 
despise those who invented and believed them. 

Jupiter is called the father of gods and king of men ; 
he is sometimes termed Jupiter Olympus, from the moun- 
tain on which he was supposed to hold council with the 
gods.* The top of Olympus was supposed to rise far above 
the clouds, into a region of pure ether; here the gods sip- 
ped nectar, and enjoyed the music of Apollo's lyre, or con- 
versed upon, and determined the destinies of mortals. 
Jupiter Amnion was worshipped in Lybia. He is also 
called Jove, and is generally represented in antique 
gems, as seated upon a throne, holding a sceptre in his 
left hand, and the thunder-bolts in his right, with an 
eagle at his feet. Juno, the queen of heaven, the sister 
and wife of Jupiter, is represented in ancient sculpture 
as seated in a chariot drawn by peacocks, or sitting 
upon the eagle of Jupiter, having in one hand a sceptre, 
and with the other hand holding a veil spangled with 
stars, which floats over her head. The character of 
Juno has ever had too many prototypes among our sex; 
beauty often inspires its possessor with the desire of 
power which destroys that softness and delicacy that 
ensure permanent affection. Scornful and imperious 
Juno may excite admiration, but love can be felt only 
for a character in which there is something gentle and 
tender ; thus Venus, with downcast looks and tearful 
eyes, appears more lovely than she, ' who walked a god- 
dess, and who moved a queen.' 

Stung with jealousy by the preference which Paris, 
a Trojan prince, gave to the beauty of Venus, Juno in- 
stigates the Grecian states to make war upon Troy ; 
after a ten years siege accomplishes the destruction of 
that city, and the hated race of Priam, father of Paris. 
But Trojan ./Eneas, the son of Venus and Anchises, 
escapes with the remnant of his companions, and, after 
suffering various ills ' by sea and land on account of the 

* ' Panditur inter ea domus omnipotentis Olympi, 
Conciliamque vocat Diviim pater atque hominum rex. '--Virgil. 

Meanwhile the palace of all-powerful Olympus is opened, and 
the father of the gods and king of men summons a council. 



152 MYTHOLOGY. 

merciless anger of cruel Juno,* he arrives in Italy 
and lays the foundation of the Roman empire.'t Even 
sullen Juno, | who through jealousy, had kept the hea- 
vens and earth and sea in a tumult, is at last appeased 
and becomes the friend of the Romans. 

Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, is sometimes 
considered as having sprung from the foam of the sea, 
and called Aphrodite; but among the modern deities, 
she is a daughter of Jupiter and Dione. In the charac- 
ter of Venus, we see beauty and softness, without wis- 
dom or force. Although aware of the dreadful ruin 
which would fall Upon the Trojans, in consequence of 
the misdeeds of Paris, yet so much did she value her 
reputation for beauty, that in order to secure his decis- 
ion in her favor, she promised him for a wife the fairest 
woman upon earth, Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of 
Sparta. Beauty has ever been the cause of much suf- 
fering and folly, and will continue to be so, until 
females shall learn to consider it as subordinate to wis- 
dom, and to be cautious lest they sacrifice the nobler 
aspirations of the heart to the pride of external charms. 

Venus, attended by the graces and her son Cupid, is 
represented as seated in a chariot drawn by doves. 
The famous statue of this goddess, called the Venus 
de Medici, proves the perfection to which the ancients 
carried the art of sculpture. Temples to Venus were 
erected in Paphos, Cytherea and Lydia. 

Minerva, the goddess of wisdom sprung forth in complete 
armor, from the head of Jupiter. Not being the offspring 
of woman, she is represented as devoid of female tender- 
ness, and the softer qualities of the sex. While the 
intellectual powers are, in her character, exhibited in 
their greatest perfection, the emotions seem to form but 
a small part of her mental constitution. She conducted 

* 'Saevae memorcm Junonis ob iram.' 
t ' Genus unde Latinum, 
Albanique patres, atque altae moenia Romae.' 

From whence the Latin race, 
The Alban fathers, and the walls of lofty Rome. 

X l Agpera Juno, 
Qua3 mare nunc terrasque metu coelumque fatigat.' 



MYTHOLOGY. 153 

wars and invented useful arts. She was the friend of 
Ulysses, and under the form of the aged Mentor, watch- 
ed over and counselled his son Telemachus. 

For a perfect female character, it would be necessary 
that the soft and tender heart of Venus should be added 
to the judging head of Minerva, and the dignity without 
the hauteur of Juno. As to personal beauty, this de- 
pends so much upon the expression of mental qualities, 
united to grace and dignity of demeanor, that the plain- 
est daughter of Eve who should thus unite sensibility 
wisdom, and dignity, would appear beautiful and lovely. 

Minerva is usually represented with a helmet upon 
her head, and in her right hand a spear, and the formi- 
dable aegis or shield with the head of Medusa in her left. 
The owl, which is sacred to her, is usually seen near her. 
This goddess showed that she was not wholly desti- 
tute of that weakness which (whether deserved or 
not, you must each judge for yourselves) the world 
have persisted in ascribing to her sex. Having invent- 
ed the flute, she was one day playing on this instrument, 
when she perceived by the reflection of herself in a 
river, that the effect upon her personal appearance was 
far from being to her advantage ; upon this the fable 
says, she threw her flute away ! Of all the satires of the 
ancients upon women, this is one of the most severe. 

Apollo, in the Grecian mythology, is made to sustain 
various characters. He is the charioteer of the sun, the 
god of music, medicine, poetry, prophecy, the fine arts and 
archery. He is called Sol, Phoebus and Helios. Apol- 
lo and Diana were twins, the children of Jupiter and 
Saturn ; they were born upon the Isle of Delos. Some 
of the goddesses wrapt him in soft garments, while 
others fed him with nectar and ambrosia. He had no 
sooner tasted the food of the gods, than throwing off his 
swathing bands he appeared as a blooming youth, and 
exclaimed ; ' the golden lyre shall be my joy, the carved 
bow my pleasure ; and in oracles, I will reveal the events 
of futurity.' Thus speaking, he marched forth majestical- 
ly and at length arrived at the foot of mount Parnassus, 
from whence he ascended to the mansions of celestial 
beings. Here, welcomed by the graces, he charmed the 



154 MYTHOLOGY. 

deities with the tones of his lyre, while the muses re- 
sponded to his harmonic numbers. 

Diana, the sister of Apollo, is represented by the moon, 
as Apollo is by the sun. Three of the goddesses, Mi- 
nerva, Vesta, and Diana, devoted themselves to celibacy, 
refusing to yield to the power of Venus, the goddess of 
love. Diana is the patroness of the chace : she was 
usually represented by ancient sculptors with a bow 
and arrow suspended from her shoulder, and a torch in 
her hand. 

Mars, the god of war, was the son of Jupiter and Juno ; 
his characteristics were impetuosity and courage, unre- 
strained by wisdom. On complaining to his father, Ju- 
piter, that Diomedes, aided by Minerva, had wounded him 
in a combat before the walls of Troy, he was thus re- 
proved ; ' Trouble me not with thy complaints, who are 
to me the most odious of all the gods that dwell on Olym- 
pus, for thou knowest of no other pleasure but strife, 
war, and contest ; in thee dwells the whole character of 
thy mother, and hadst thou been any other than my own 
son, thou wouldst long ago have been plunged deeper in- 
to Tartarus than the Titans. 5 Bellona, the sister of Mars, 
is his charioteer. 

Mercury was the son of Jupiter, and Maia the daughter 
of Atlas. He was born in the morning, and at noon leav- 
ing his cradle, he saw by the threshold a tortoise, which 
he thus addressed : ' Thou art now the dumb, but after 
thy death thy song shall be heard.' Having killed the 
animal, he fitted to the shell, seven strings, from which 
he drew forth sounds which so delighted him that he 
broke forth into praises of the domestic utensils about 
his mother's dwelling, until his song soared at length 
to the sublimest subjects. Mercury was the swift mes- 
senger of the divinities, and the god of language ; the 
tongues of victims were offered to him in sacrifice. He 
was also the pattern of trade and of cunning devices. 
The Greek name for Mercury was Hermes, a word sig- 
nifying to interpret. It is generally believed that, under 
these names, divine honors were paid to some person, 
who in a remote period of antiquity had enchanted man* 
kind by his poetry and benefited them by useful inven- 
tions. 

I 



MYTHOLOGY. 155 

Bacchus, the god of wine, was celebrated by the most 
tumultuous and licentious rites. He is usually repre- 
sented as followed by Silcnus, an old man seated upon 
an ass and reeling with intoxication, while sarcastic 
satyrs and sportive fawns are dancing around him. 

Vulcan, a son of Juno, being deformed and lame, 
was by Jupiter, thrown from Olympus down to earth. 
Ho was aftei wards admitted to the assembly of the gods 
whom he amused with his awkwardness and wit. He 
was the husband of Venus, to please whom, he, with the 
aid of the Cyclops, manufactured arms for ./Eneas.* 
To him was committed the business of making Jupiter's 
thunderbolts : his principal forge was under Mount Etna. 

Ceres, the goddess of corn, taught mortals to cultivate 
the earth ; she was the mother of Proserpine, whom 
Pluto privately seized and carried off to the infernal re- 
gions to his queen. Ceres having learned the abode of 
her daughter, obtained Jupiter's consent for her release 
from hell, provided Proserpine had not tasted the food of 
those realms of darkness; but this, not being the case, 
she could never be wholly restored to her former com- 
panionship with the celestials. 

Vesta was worshipped by the ancients, as the deity 
who presided over domestic comfort, as the one who 
taught families to gather around the sacred hearth, and 
to prepare food with fire.t She, they believed, taught 
man to build a shelter for himself and those he loved; 
thus the entrance into a dwelling was called the vestibule, 
and considered as sacred to Vesta. 
2. Marine Deities. The sea was made subject to Neptune, 

* ' Terram, exercebant vasto Cyclops in antro, 
Brontesque, Steropesque et nudus membra Pyracmon.' 
The Cyclops in their vast cave, labored upon the steel, Brontes, 
And Sterope.s, and ihe naked limbed Pyracmon. 

t The domestic hearth was consecrated to Vesta; thus, ./Eneas : 
' Cineram et sopitos suscitat ignes, 
Pergameamque Larem, et candae penetralia Vesta, 
Farre pio, et plena veneratur acerra.' 
./Eneas awakes the embers and dormant fire, and suppliant wor- 
ships his Trojan — household god and the shrine of ancient Vesta, 
with a holy cake and full censer. 



156 MYTHOLOGY. 

the brother of Jupiter. He was the father of the mon- 
strous cyclop, Polyphemus,* who had been deprived of his 
eye by Ulysses. For this injury, Neptune pursued him 
with his vengeance, causing him to suffer shipwreck and 
all the perils of the sea ; but from these he was preserved 
by the aid of Minerva. Neptune produced the winged 
horse Pegasus. At a certain time, he was sent by his 
master to command the Muses to put a stop to their 
songs and mirth, which so shook the surrounding regions, 
that Helicon itself was dancing beneath their feet. Hav- 
ing reached the top of Mount Helicon, Pegasus execu- 
ted his commission by pawing violently upon the ground ; 
whereupon that fountain burst forth from which poets 
have since drank the divine inspiration; this was called 
Hippocrene. Neptune is represented in antique sculp- 
ture, as holding in his hand a trident or fork with three 
teeth instead of a sceptre ; he is drawn by sea horses ; 
his son Triton is blowing a trumpet made of a sea shell, 
and the dolphins are sporting around his chariot. Amphi- 
trite is the wife of Neptune and queen of the sea ; she 
appears seated in a car shaped like a shell and drawn by 
dolphins ; the sea nymphs hold the sail which is swelled 
by the breath of Zephyrus (the west wind) ; like her 
husband, she holds a trident in her hand, by which she 
rules her empire. 

Proteus, a son of Oceanus, is the keeper of Neptune's 
seals ; he is considered an allegorical representative of 
nature, assuming every variety of appearance, fire, water, 
animal, plant, or mineral ; to those only who grasped him 
firmly, he revealed his real character. 

3. Infernal Regions and Deities. The dominions of Plu- 
to included both Tartarus, the abode of the wicked, and 
Elysium, the dwelling of the good and happy. The At- 
lantic Ocean was considered the boundary of the earth, 
Mount Atlas sustained the sky upon its broad shoulders, 
and near the western horizon were the gardens of Hes- 
perides, with their golden fruits. 

The river Acheron was the passage from the earth to 

* 'Monstrum horrendam, ingens informe ; cui lumen ademptus.' 
A huge, misshapen, horrible monster ; to whom sight was wanting. 



MYTHOLOGY. 157 

the dominions of Pluto, over which Charon ferried de- 
parted souls, and on the opposite bank was the three- 
headed dog Cerberus. Cocytus, Styx, Phlegethon and 
Lethe were rivers of Tartarus ;* Milton says : 

1 Four infernal rivers disgorge 
Into the burning lake their baleful streams : 
Abhorred Styx, the flood of deadly hate; 
Sad Acheron, of sorrow black and deep; 
Cocytus, named of lamentation loud 
Heard on the rueful streams; fierce Phlegethon, 
Whose waves of torrent fire inflame with rage, 
Far off from these a slow and silent stream, 
Lethe, the river of oblivion, rolls 
Her watery labyrinth, whereof who drinks, 
Forthwith his former state and being forgets, 
Forgets both joy and grief, pleasure and pain.' 

Pluto was called by the Greeks, Hades the Invisible 
or Unknown. He was sometimes called Stygian Jove. 
At Alexandria in Egypt, he was worshipped under the 
name of Jupiter Serapis. He was considered as presid- 
ing over the dead and funeral obsequies. The seizure 
of Proserpine by Pluto is considered an allegorical repre- 
sentation of youth and beauty falling a prey to sudden 
death. In these gloomy abodes Pluto and Proserpine are 
seated in that eternal and mournful silence, which is 
characteristic of their empire. 

Plutus is the god who presides over riches ; deformed 
and wretched, he is represented as seated on a throne of 
gold under a canopy siudded with precious gems. This 
allegory shows the unsatisfying nature of wealth ; thus 
Milton, 

' Let none admire 

That riches grow in hell ; that soil may best 

Deserve the precious bane.' 

* ' Huic via, Tartarei qumfert Jlchcrontis ad undas : 
Turbidus hie coE.no, vastaque voragine gurges 
Jiestuat, alque omnem Cocyto eruct.at arenam 
Portitor has horrendus aquas er fiumina servat 
Terribili squalor e Charon.' 

Here is a path which leads to the waters of Tartarean Acheron, 
here a turbid and impure gulf boils with mud and vast whirlpools, 
and vomits all its sand into Cocytus. A grim ferryman guards 
these floods and rivers, Charon, frightfully squalid. 

14 



158 MYTHOLOGY. 

4. The Fates, (Parcce) were the destinies who presided 
over the lives and fortunes of man ; Clotho holds the dis- 
taff, Lachesis spins the thread of life, and Atropos, with 
the terrible scissors, cuts it off. 

The Furies, were Tisiphone, the avenger of murder ; 
Megaera the wrathful, and Alectu the restless — these are 
frightful beings, with snakes, instead of hair, and gar- 
ments smeared with blood. The Furies were so dreaded 
by men, that their names were seldom pronounced. 
They were supposed to pursue the guilty with never- 
ceasing tortures; thus Orestes for the murder of his 
mother was forever followed by their vengeance. 

5. Besides the Celestial, Marine and Infernal gods, the 
ancients paid divine honors to a race of Demi-gods, or 
heroes, who had distinguished themselves for some great 
exploits ; as Perseus who cut off the head of the dreadful 
Medusa, and devoted it to Minerva ; by her it was placed 
in the centre of her shield, the mighty csgis. Perseus, 
delivered Andromeda the daughter of Caseopeia from a 
monster ; these names have been immortalized by being 
transferred to the constellations. 

Bellerophon signalized himself by the, destruction of 
the monster Chimera ; Hercules was distinguished for ma- 
ny great acts, by which he freed the earth from plagues 
of various description. The names of Theseus, Jason, 
and many other famed heroes, are recorded in the an- 
nals of mythology. Some of them undoubtedly were 
distinguished men of a remote period, others are proba- 
bly wholly fabulous beings. 

6. Too much of our time has already been given to the 
consideration of Mythological fictions, and yet we cannot 
close the subject without noticing a class of imaginary 
beings, who in the minds of men seemed to form a con- 
necting link between the gods and men — these were the 
nine Muses, daughters of Mnemosyne (memory) to 
whom their venerable mother imparted the treasure of 
her wisdom : 

Clio was the Muse of history, 
Calliope, of epic poetry, 
Melpomene, of tragedy, 
Thalia, of comedy, 
Polyhymnia, of eloquence, 



MYTHOLOGY. 159 

Urania, of asironomy, 
Euterpe, of* the flute, 
Terpsichore, of the dance, 
Erato, of song. 

7. The Sirens were represented as monsters, who ap- 
peared from the waist upward like beautiful females; they 
attempted to rival the Muses, but the songs of the former 
were false and seductive, while those of the latter were 
true, and Jed to virtue. Cupid, the son of Venus, was 
the god of love ; he was a beautiful blind boy, generally 
represented as holding in his hand a bow and arrows. 

8. The Graces were Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne ; 
they were sent to mortals to inspire kind and agreeable 
feelings; without their aid, beauty itself was considered 
incapable of commanding homage. They were repre- 
sented as three sisters, who in their various attitudes, ex- 
pressed every variety of personal dignity and elegant 
motion; exemplifying by their union the tender emotions 
of love, friendship and kindness. 

9. Rural Deities^ — These were Nymphs or beautiful 
creatures who presided over the springs and fountains, the 
forests and hills ; to each of these was supposed to be- 
long its living and animating spirit. The Naiad sat at 
the fountain pouring forth the warbling brook from her 
pitcher. The Dryads animated the solemn gloom of the 
forests, and the Hamadryed was confined to her individ- 
ual tree. In the felling of each tree, it was supposed its 
wood nymph perished. 

10. The Satyrs and Fawns, formed a connecting link 
between man and the brute creation, having the semblance 
of a human being, united to the horns and feet of a goat: 
they were followers of Bachus. 

Pan was the principal of the rural deities. He in- 
vented the reed, or the shepherd's flute. He was feared 
by herdsmen and shepherds, who ascribed all unusual 
inexplicable sounds to Pan j hence it is said the term 
panic-struck was derived. , . 

Among the Romans every family had its tutelary di- 
vinity. Terminus was the guardian of landmarks; 
Pales, the goddess of shepherds ; Flora, of flowers ; Pomo- 
na, of fruits; Comus, of wit; Momus, of sarcasm ; Hymen,, 
of marriage ; Orpheus, of music ; iEsculapius, of medi- 
cine ; Hygeia, of health. 



160 MYTHOLOGY. 

Among the favorites of the gods was Ganymede, a de- 
scendant of Danlanus, the founder of Troy ; he was the 
most beautiful of men, and was chosen by Jupiter to bear 
nectar to the gods. Hebe, the former cup-bearer, having 
been careless enough to fall when performing this office, 
was considered too ungraceful to serve at the table of the 
gods. 

Of the thirty thousand deities, said to have been re- 
cognized by the Grecian Mythology, we have named 
those who are most frequently alluded to by the poets. 
From the quotations we have made from Virgil, (and 
these might have been greatly multiplied,) you will see 
that the zEneid, without some knowledge of these fic- 
tions, would be divested of much of its interest, and in- 
deed would not be understood in many of its passages. 

Miss Edgeworth remarks, ' Classical poetry without the 
knowledge of mythology is unintelligible. Divested of 
the charms of poetry, and considered without classical 
prepossession, mythology presents a system of crimes 
and absurdities, which no allegorical, metaphysical, or 
literal interpreters of modern times, can perfectly recon- 
cile to common sense, or common morality ; but our po- 
ets have naturalized ancient fables, so that Mythology is 
become essential to modern literature. The associations 
of taste, though arbitrary, are not easily changed in a 
nation, whose literature has attained to a certain pitch of 
refinement, and whose . critical judgments must conse- 
quently have been for some generations traditional. 
There are subjects of popular allusion, which poets and 
orators regard as common property ; to dispossess them 
of these seems impracticable, after time has sanctioned 
the prescriptive right.' 

Seeing so much, in the long vista before us, which 
must be accomplished in order to redeem the pledge giv- 
en in the outline of my Lectures, I gladly turn from the 
episode with which I have indulged you, to subjects of 
deeper interest than mythological fable. In our next 
lecture we will consider these studies which have for 
their object, the real existences, with which the great au- 
thor of our own being, has surrounded us. 

How grand, how sublime do the truths of revealed 



NATURAL SCIENCE. 161 

religion appear to us when contrasted with those fa- 
bles which the heathen poets thought worthy of so 
much pomp of language ! ' I am the Lord, and there is 
no God beside me,' is the language of " the High and 
Holy One who inhabiteth eternity." — He needeth no long 
train of subordinate agents to accomplish his purposes : 
* He speaks and it is done !' 

' The earth is the Lord's, and the fullness thereof.' — It 
is this fullness, those works which their Creator pronoun- 
ced ' good,' that, in the study of Natural Science, we are 
led to examine, to analyze into their original elements, 
and arrange according to their various relations, and the 
laws of that most wonderful of the Almighty's works, 
the human mind. 



LECTURE XV. 

Natural Science, Astronomy, Natural Philosophy, 

The erroneous opinions which have prevailed with 
respect to education, appear nowhere in a more striking 
light, than in the neglect with which nature has been 
treated, by those who aspired to teach useful knowledge, 
and to bring forward the young, fitted for the duties of 
life. Books in abundance were given the pupil, rnd a 
knowledge of their contents was considered a sufficient 
preparation for the world into which they were about to 
enter. How wonderful that the great book of nature 
should have been passed unheeded, — that the air they 
breathed, the water they drank, the fire that warmed 
them, the stones beneath their feet, the mountain masses, 
the glittering mineral, the flowers which th^y loved to 
look upon, the noble animals and the little insects, the 
pearly treasures of the ocean and streamlet- — how won- 
derful that all these should have been deemed incapable 
of interesting the attention of the young. 

There have indeed ever been some lovers of nature, 
14* 



162 NATURAL SCIENCE. 

some who sought to penetrate her mysteries and unfold 
her laws; but ihe generality of students in our popular 
schools, have, it might seem, almost studiously been 
kept ignorant of those mysteries and laws; — ignorant, of 
their very existence. A plant was seen simply as a 
thing ornamental, useful or noxious. The idea of its rela- 
tion to other plants, to the atmosphere, soil and light, 
of its being a part in the vast series of creation, never 
was suggested during my own school education ; all sub- 
jects connected with natural science, being kept out of 
view, in female academies, as much as alchymy or he- 
raldry now are. 

Natural Philosophy in the form of a little catechism, 
was indeed introduced, but it was wholly a matter of faith ; 
the idea that anything contained in the book could be 
proved by experiment, could be made manifest to our 
ears and eyes, never presented itself. Chemistry when 
it first begun to be taught in female schools, was only 
theoretical. It was to be sure a hard task to learn by 
heart, without the least idea of their properties, such 
names as oxygen and nitrogen — to remember that air 
was composed of these, and that water was composed 
of oxygen and hydrogen. Of the real existence of 
these substances we had as little conception as of the mon- 
ster Chimera, or any other fabulous creation. The 
subject of chemical analysis can indeed only be compre- 
hended by the assistance of the senses. 

At the present time, Natural Science is receiving by 
those who superintend the education of youth, that at- 
tention which it so deservedly merits. The term Natu- 
ral Science signifies a knowledge of nature, and thus 
comprehensive, it includes not only the consideration of 
all substances upon the globe and the atmosphere around 
it, but of the heavenly bodies. This general science of 
nature, is also termed physics, a word derived from 
phusis, nature. Under the head of Natural Science, 
according to the definition just given, may be ranked 
its subdivisions, Astronomy, Natural Philosophy, Chem- 
istry, Natural History. — Under Natural History are its 
subdivisions, Zoology, Botany, and Mineralogy ; and 
under the latter is the subordinate branch, Geology. 



ASTRONOMY, 163 

Astronomy . Astronomy is a term derived from aster, 
a star, and nomos, a Greek word signifying name. We 
have made some allusions to this science under the head 
of geography, and our time will not permit us to dwell 
with minuteness on each branch of study, however inter- 
esting and important. 

There is certainly no science which seems more cal- 
culated to exalt the soul and fill it with sublime concep- 
tions of the great Author of nature, than Astronomy. 
The mere sight of the heavenly bodies, without any 
knowledge of the regularity of their motions; the uni- 
formity of the laws which govern these motions ; the vast 
distances which separate these bodies, and yet their 
relations to each other; the mere sight of the heavens 
without any knowledge of all this, is sufficient to inspire 
the human soul with wonder and admiration : but when 
science unfolds her discoveries, then truly does man 
stand abashed before Him who ' sitteth in the circle of 
the heavens, who made heaven and the heaven of hea- 
vens with all their host, who preservest them all, and by 
whom He is worshipped.' In the words of an elegant 
writer,* a serious contemplation of the sublime objects 
which astronomy has explored, must, therefore, have a 
tendency to inspire us with profound veneration of the 
Eternal Jehovah, — to humble us in the dust before his 
august presence — to excite admiration of his condescen- 
sion and grace in the work of redemption, — to show us 
the littleness of this world, and the insignificance of 
those riches and honors to which ambitious men aspire 
with so much labor and anxiety of mind, — to demonstrate 
the glory and magnificence of God's universal kingdom, 
— to convince us of the infinite sources of varied felicity 
which he has in his power to communicate to holy 
intelligences, — to enliven our hopes of the splendors of 
the ' exceeding great and eternal weight of glory,' which 
will burst upon the spirits of good men, when they pass 
from this region of mortality, — and to induce us to aspire 
with more lively ardor after that heavenly world, where 
the glories of the Deity and the magnificence of his 
works will be more clearly unfolded. 

* Thomas Dick. 



164 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Natural Philosophy. From the consideration of the 
heavens, we descend to those branches of the study of na- 
ture which relate to the globe, with the objects upon its 
surface, and the atmosphere around it. Natural Philoso- 
phy acquaints us with the general properties and mechan- 
ical laws of bodies, the physical laws of attraction, light 
and electricity : it is founded on observation, and experi- 
ment, and derives important assistance from mathematical 
science.* Taking this definition for our guide, we will 
briefly consider some of the many subjects embraced in 
this comprehensive science. 

1. The general properties of bodies. Our knowledge 
of the properties of matter depends wholly on our senses ; 
and when we say that it has a certain number of pro- 
perties, we should always consider that this number is 
only relative to our senses. Take from man the sense of 
vision, and he would have no idea of color as a property 
of matter ; take away the sense of touch and muscular 
power, and he would have no conception of hardness or 
softness as a property of matter. So of our other senses, 
the loss of any one of which would abridge matter of 
some of the properties that we now ascribe to it. 

But suppose, on the other hand, that a new sense were 
added to man : is it not probable that he would perceive 
new qualities in matter, such as his 'philosophy has 
never yet dreamed of?' We see then how limited is 
our knowledge of the material world. The mind has its 
five servants, the senses, to labor in the great work of 
finding out the mechanism of a world ; and the sphere 
of their operations is so limited and circumscribed, that 
there are probably, in nature, kingdoms and provinces 
which they have no power to enter, and which are to 
them wholly unperceived. 

How august, how mysterious appears the world of 
matter around us, when considered in this light, and 
how does the enumeration of the few properties, which 
our philosophy ascribes to it, strike us with a sense of 
our own limited faculties, which perceive so little of the 
rich variety, the stupendous majesty of the eternal 

* See the author's Dictionary of Chemistry, p. 11. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 165 

world. And yet we know much — for though our list of 
the properties of matter be small, the various respects, 
the infinite relations of each one of these properties is 
truly astonishing. 

Matter is known to us only through the medium of 
the mind, as affected by the senses. We call that body, 
matter, or material substance, which can affect one or 
more of our senses. The sight, touch, hearing, taste 
and smell, are all called upon to give the mind knowledge 
of the existence of matter, and the impossibility of sup- 
posing an effect without a cause, renders the existence 
of the cause which acts upon our senses, as certain as 
the existence of the senses which are acted upon.* 

How far matter extends is a subject on which philoso- 
phy is still as much in doubt as in the commencement of 
her researches. Newton discovered the principle of 
gravitation, and on the supposition of its existence, 
explained the relation of the planets, and various 
other phenomena of nature. But what gravitation 
is, philosophy has not presumed to explain. The fra- 
grance of a body, we know to be minute particles of the 
body itself, which, diffusing itself into the atmosphere, 
reach our organs of smelling, and thus produce a certain ef- 

* Dr. Brown supposes that of all our senses, none but that of 
touch, aided by muscular action, could give us an idea of an ex- 
ternal world. ' With no sense but that of smell,' he says, ' the 
fragrance of a rose would appear bat as a pleasant feeling, spring- 
ing up spontaneously in the mind. Music, or sounds of any kind, 
with the sense of hearing only, would give us no idea of any thing 
without ourselves. Taste, separated from the tactual feeling, 
would not suggest an external object; even vision, he thinks 
would but paint upon the retina of the eye an indistinct mass of 
color without figure^ or without informing the mind of the exist- 
ence of an external object.' But, according to Dr. Brown, the 
muscular sense is the key which unlocks the mysteries of the 
world without us, and renders our other senses of use. We may 
go along with Dr. Brown through the consideration of the senses 
of smell, hearing and even taste ; but when he would deny the 
power of unaided vision, to suggest an external object, we feel 
that he is drawing too largely upon our credulity, and suspicions 
being awakened of the legitimacy of his reasonings, Ve are inclin- 
ed to take back the assent we yielded to the first of his assertions, 
with respect to the independent agency of each sense in teaching 
the existence of matter. 



166 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

feet on the mind, which is termed a sensation. Is gravita- 
tion a subtle yet powerful fluid, emanating from one body 
and drawing another towards it 1 Is it material ? Or 
what unknown secret sympathy can actuate masses of in- 
ert matter, causing them to rush towards each other in 
a cold and dead embrace 1 These things are suggested, 
not with a view to confuse your minds, or to lead you to 
think that all philosophy is but speculation, all science a 
collection of enigmas. But there are questions in sci- 
ence, which are vain and useless; questions that have 
occupied, to no purpose, the time and talents of those who 
desired to benefit the world. Lord Bacon observed, that 
there was more true philosophy to be found in the work- 
shops than in the schools ; in the former, all was practi- 
cal ; in the latter, utility was sacrificed to speculation. 

Yet there are now certain principles established in 
science which are subject to no fluctuations, and which 
afford a firm basis for future discoveries. Questions as 
to the essence of matter, the secret springs of the ma- 
chinery of the universe, and the first causes of things, are 
by common consent exploded as profitless and unfathom- 
able. To watch nature in her operations, to note the 
process by which these operations are carried on, and, 
from particular cases, to form general conclusions, is now 
the professed aim of men of science. Important applica- 
tions are thus made of principles discovered, which tend 
to advance the improvement and happiness of society. 

The subjects embraced by this science are numerous, 
and highly important. Mechanics investigates the laws 
o/ gravitation, as they operate in the different phenome- 
na of motion and of central forces. It considers the theo- 
ry of machines, the properties of the mechanical powers, 
with the principles on which they are made to operate, 
and the effects to be produced. From this branch of 
Natural Philosophy have originated some of the most 
wonderful discoveries and inventions which mark the 
history of man. Agriculture, manufactures, architec- 
ture, navigation, the fine arts, and even the sciences them- 
selves, owe to mechanical philosophy the instruments by 
which they are severally enabled to carry on their opera- 
tions. It is the mainspring in social and civilized life ; 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 167 

and he who discovers a new principle in mechanics, or a 
new application of a previously discovered principle, is 
more useful to the world, than he who writes volumes 
of idle hypotheses, however rich the language, or fascin- 
ating the manner in which they are communicated. 
* Happy he, whose name descends to posterity as the au- 
thor of a useful invention, or the discoverer of a new prin- 
ciple. We cannot honor too much the man, who opens a 
new career of knowledge to the human mind. The 
difficulty of the first discovery is always the greatest; and 
the merit of inventing is always greater than that of per- 
fecting ; as in total darkness it is more difficult to strike 
a light, than to kindle others by the flame of the first.'* 

The remaining branches of natural philosophy, we 
have scarcely time to mention. Hydrostatics, which 
treats of the pressure and equilibrium of water, is derived 
from the Greek, hudor, water, and stat, a derivation from 
the Latin verb to stand. 

Hydraulics, derived from hudor and aulos, a pipe, is a 
branch of hydrostatics, and signifies the science of con- 
veying water by pipes. 

Pneumatics, from pneuma, air, and mathesis, learning, 
treats of the nature and properties of the atmosphere. 

Acoustics, from akouo, I hear, treats of sound, its laws, 
and the various phenomena connected with it. 

Optics, from ops, the eye, treats of vision, and the laws 
which govern the transmission and reflection of light. 

Electricity was so named from its having been dis- 
covered in amber, which in Greek is called electron. 
This science explains the operations of one of the most 
wonderful and all-pervading principles in nature. The 
electric fluid appears to be diffused as extensively as mat- 
ter itself, and to operate not only in the terrific pheno- 
menon of lightning, but to be active in some of the most 
silent and gradual changes in nature. Chemical attrac- 
tion has of late been suspected to be owing to a union of 
the negative and positive electricities, and even the phy- 
siology of organized life has been thought to bear some 
mysterious relation to the electric fluid. 

Galvanism, so named from Galvani, the discoverer, is 

* Encyclopedic Portative. 



168 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

considered as a modification of electricity, differing how- 
ever in this circumstance, that in the former, the effects 
are mostly produced by the chemical action of bodies up- 
on each other, while in the latter, the effects seem to be 
more the result of mechanical action. 

Magnetism. This singular principle resides in the load- 
stone, or the dentoxide of iron. The magnet is known by 
its property of attracting steel and iron. It is an iron, 
composed of 72 parts of metal and 28 of oxygen. A 
fragment of this metal, if placed upon a pivot, always 
points to the north and south, being always provided with 
two poles : opposite poles of two magnets attract, while 
similar poles repel each other. The most important 
use of the magnet is, the certainty with which it guides 
the mariner through the trackless ocean ; and were this 
the only advantage to be derived from its discovery, the 
benefits would be incalculable. The magnetic fluid ap- 
pears to have an intimate connexion with electricity and 
galvanism, as those have with light and heat : it has been 
suggested that all these agents are but modifications of 
one great principle.* 

Sketch of the History of Natural Philosophy. Hav- 
ing now remarked, in a very general manner, upon the 
subjects embraced under Natural Philosophy, we will 
glance at the origin and progress of this science. The 
ancient philosophers in their schools, considered without 
any reference to their different objects, the various kinds 
of knowledge. They united natural with moral philos- 
ophy. Their progress in the latter science was much 
greater than in the former. 

Thales, one of the seven wise men of Greece, - lived 
four hundred years before Christ ; he was the founder of 
the Ionian school. He is the most ancient of the Greek 
philosophers who applied themselves to the study of na- 
ture ; he explained eclipses, discovered electricity in 
amber, and made some important experiments. 

■ Electricity, Galvanism, and Magnetism are usually treated of 
under the head of Chemistry, as well as Natural Philosophy : in- 
deed, some chemists have been led to conjecture that all chemi- 
cal decomposition is performed by the agency of the opposite 
electricities. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 169 

Pythagoras, one hundred years after Thales, in his 
school rendered illustrious by the discovery of the true 
system of the earth, taught something of the theory of 
sounds, and other subjects connected with natural phi- 
losophy ; but as he built theories upon hypothesis and not 
experiment, nothing was added by him to the science. 
He is celebrated for having suggested the true theory of 
the earth, afterwards revived by Copernicus. 

Democritus, four hundred seventy years before Christ, 
employed himself in the study of Mechanical Philoso- 
phy ; he suggested the atomic theory of bodies; viz. that 
all bodies consisted of certain minute parts, or atoms, 
which were indivisible ; these were called ultimate atoms. 
Democritus was considered as guilty of contempt towards 
man, because he occupied himself more in the study 'of 
matter than mind. His works being lost, all that con- 
tinned to be known on the subject of natural philosophy, 
was what related to certain of the arts, such as the work- 
ing of metals. It was thought beneath the dignity of 
science to descend to what was merely useful. Plato 
reproached geometry for descending to assist the neces- 
sities of man. 

Aristotle, whose name has for so long a time been 
held in almost idolatrous reverence by the followers of 
science, seems not to have arrived at any general princi- 
ples by his manner of investigating. His facts were in- 
sulated and incomplete, and furnished no means of gen- 
eralizing ; indeed his metaphysical ideas were averse 
to generalization. Thus we find the progress of physics 
retarded by false views then entertained of the nature 
of the mind. The science founded on facts is compara- 
tively of modern origin ; the laws of science derived from 
the comparison of well established facts, are still more re- 
cent. 

Archimedes, of Syracuse, flourished abouj two hundred 
fifty years before Christ. He united to the most pro- 
found knowledge of mathematics, a close observation of 
natural phenomena, and an uncommon genius for inves- 
tigation. He discovered the manner of ascertaining 
the specific gravity of bodies, by weighing them in water ; 
experimented upon solar rays by concentrating them to 
15 



170 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

a focus, and made many observations upon the refraction 
of light. This philosopher seemed intuitively to conceive 
that the proper method of philosophising was to collect 
facts, to combine them, and thus establish general laws 
— that afterwards by applying these laws to nature, a new 
mode of discovery might be obtained, leaving it to future 
experience to prove the theories thus suggested.* 

After Archimedes, no genuine priest of nature appears 
in a loner career of ages : as men had before seemed to 
want science, science now wanted men. And until Bacon 
and Galileo, in the seventeenth century, nothing of impor- 
tance vvas added to physical science. Bacon did not in- 
deed add to science by any actual discoveries, but he point- 
ed out the mode by which investigations should be con- 
ducted, in order that advances might be made. Experi- 
ment and observation, were by him consideied the only 
sure routes to an accurate knowledge of nature. 

Galileo about this time made an accurate calculation 
of the ratio of falling bodies, giving the first application 
of mathematics to physics. Torricelli, the pupil of Gali- 
leo, invented the barometer ; Bayle invented the air 
pump. The scientific societies of London and Paris 
were founded, encouragement was offered for discove- 
ries, new works were published, and at length science 
was enlightened with the discoveries of Newton. The 
methods of observation and calculation of this great man, 
have been followed by later philosophers, and the study 
and knowledge of his works have been considered as 
sufficient to entitle them to a high rank. The influence 
of this powerful genius in all the sciences of observa- 
tion would be a subject worthy of interest ; if we add 
his own discoveries, those which he has suggested, and 
the improvements which these have produced in other 
sciences, we can form some idea of the vast influence 
which one great mind may exercise upon the knowledge, 
virtue and happiness of the world. 

Since the time of Newton, many important discove- 
ries have been made in mechanical philosophy. The arts 

* For an interesting sketch of the History of Physical Science, 
the r ader is referred to a small French work — ' V Encyclopedic 
Portative. ' 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 171 

of steam navigation, construction of rail-roads, &c. are at 
this period effecting a change in the future condition of 
the world, greater than we at present can conceive ; and 
the improvements which may arise upon those already 
made are beyond the utmost stretch of imagination. 

Before closing our remarks on the study of Natural 
Philosophy, permit me to remind you, that this is em- 
phatically a science of facts. While pursuing it, 
turn your thoughts to the real appearances of nature 
around you, consider the knowledge of books as no- 
thing, but as it serves to turn your attention to the 
changes which are constantly taking place. If you en- 
ter a mechanic's shop, examine the implements, or ma- 
chinery, with a view to the application of your theo- 
retical knowledge. Do not scorn to listen to the most 
simple account of mechanical operations ; they are car- 
ried on by principles, which you have learned from books, 
and which the mechanic, though ignorant of science, un- 
derstands practically. If you are travelling in a steam- 
boat or upon a rail-road, make yourselves acquainted 
with the principles by which the motion is produced or 
which are involved in the construction of the machine- 
ry ; or if you understand these principles, do not fail to 
notice whenever you see them practically illustrated. 

Our sex have, in genera], far less observation than the 
other. We incline too much to live in the little world 
of our own thoughts. Let two young persons of different 
sexes, unaccustomed to travelling, find themselves for the 
first time on board a ship or a steam-boat. The female 
probably occupies herself with thoughts of the friends 
from whom she has parted, or of those whom she expects 
to meet; memory and imagination are busy, but her 
powers of observation slumber, unless perhaps exercised 
in noticing the dresses of those around her, their pecu- 
liarities of manners, and probable standing in society. 
The young man, very likely, examines the construction 
of the ship, or steam-boat, its size, the velocity with 
which it moves, and the appearances of the different 
natural objects which present themselves. 

I am far from asserting that there is always this differ- 
ence in the operations of the mind in the sexes ; for there 



172 CHEMISTRY. 

are females of close observation upon works of art and 
nature, and men who observe superficially. The effect 
of the study of the different branches of Natural Science 
is to produce habits of observation, and in this respect 
as well as their general tendency to enlarge the mind, 
and to render life more happy and elevated, they are 
deserving the attention of females. 



LECTURE XVI. 

Chemistry. — History of Chemistry . 

The science of Chemistry is of peculiar interest to our 
sex; its applications to domestic economy are numerous 
and important. These applications are however yet but 
little understood ; the reason of this is, that chem- 
ists, are not housekeepers, and housekeepers are not 
chemists. The various processes in culinary operations 
are mostly performed on chemical principles, yet those 
principles are seldom known or thought of by those who 
perform the operations. I am aware that many a good 
housewife might smile at my remarks, and say she 
would not exchange her experience for all the theories 
which chemistry can give. It is very true that your 
excellent mothers and grandmothers may possess that 
experience in domestic concerns which enables them to 
perform complicated operations with ease and safety; 
but even thry, I think, would delight to understand the 
causes of effects which they have been for so many 
years witnessing, and agents in producing. 

For instance, no article is in more common use in 
house-keeping than pearlash. In making gingerbread 
this is used to render it light. The common method is, 
to put vinegar into the pearlash, and while it is efferves- 
cing, to add it to the other materials. 

But why does pearlash make gingerbread light? If 
you were to make this inquiry of many women, they 



CHEMISTRY. 173 

would look astonished at what they would conceive to be 
a ' foolish question : ' they would say perhaps, ' because 
it is natural,' or ' because it does,' or because * it is so 
made,' &,c. I would not unnecessarily expose a weak- 
ness of my sex, but we are quite too apt to give for a 
reason, that which is no reason at all. 

The simple explanation of the process above men- 
tioned is this ; pearlash is a carbonate of potash, or 
potash united to carbonic acid; vinegar contains a pe- 
culiar acid called acetic acid; for this acid, potash has a 
greater affinity than for carbonic acid. When vinegar is 
added to carbonate of potash, the potash choosing the 
acetic acid of the vinegar begins to expel the carbonic 
acid, this produces an effervescence ; the effervescing 
mass being added to the flour, the carbonic acid in the 
form of little bubbles of air, instead of passing into the 
atmosphere, becomes entangled in the gluten of the 
flour, swells it out, and thus makes the gingerbread 
light. The potash forms with the acetic acid the new 
combination, acetate of potash. 

When bread is suffered to rise or ferment too long, 
the acetous, or souring fermentation begins, and the 
dough becomes sour. In order to remedy this, a solu- 
tion of pearlash (carbonate of potash) is introduced; the 
acetic acid (which causes the sourness,) is ahsorbed by 
the pearlash and the carbonic acid of the pearlash is set 
free. This escaping in the form of little air bubbles 
increases the lightness of the dough. 

You will perceive from the examples now given, that 
chemistry is a science which is intimately connected 
with the peculiar business of women. But as I have 
already remarked, the applications of this science to 
domestic operations, although numerous and important, 
are yet far from being as extensive as we might expect 
from the perfection which chemistry has attained. It 
is to be hoped that as educated women engage in the 
duties of housewifery, culinary chemistry will receive 
more attention than it has heretofore done.* * 

* A chemical text-book for female schools is now in progress; 
this is intended to embrace all the known applications of chemis- 
try to the business of house-keeping, in its various branches. 

15* 



174 CHEMISTRY. 

I shall now proceed to give a general view of chemi- 
cal science, with an outline of its history. In doing 
this, I shall refer to my Dictionary of Chemistry, which 
contains articles prepared in accordance with my 
present views of the manner in which these subjects 
may profitably be presented to the mind. Where the 
pupil already has a knowledge of the science, such out- 
lines are highly useful in condensing and systematizing 
what is learned ; when the subject is new, sketches 
may excite sufficient curiosity and interest to lead the 
mind to desire more information. It was indeed, when 
engaged in writing the articles for the work above nam- 
ed, that the thought first occurred to me of the bene- 
fits which you might derive from similar sketches of the 
leading principles, histories, and practical applications, of 
the various branches of study, which enter into the plan 
of education pursued in this institution.* 

Chemistry is a science no less elevated in its general 
views than various in its applications ; its object is to 
examine the elements oxjirst principles of substances and 
their laws of combinations, its application to other scien- 
ces, to arts, medicine, manufactures and housewifery, 
are numerous and important. It may be divided into 
organic and inorganic Chemistry. 

Organic Chemistry is confined to the investigation of 
the elements of vegetable and animal substances, and 
the laws which govern their combinations. This depart- 
ment, including the whole of animal and vegetable 
poisons, and their antidotes, is intimately connected 
with the study of medicine. The same elements, dif- 
ferently proportioned and combined, constitute all or- 
ganic and inorganic substances. 

Inorganic Chemistry includes the study of the ele- 
ments of all matter confined to the combination of these 
elements in inorganic bodies. The ancients conceived 
that there were but four elements, or first principles, viz. 
earth, air,Jire, and water. Chemistry has shown that 
all these substances, except fire, (the nature of which is 

* The remainder of the Lecture on Chemistry was taken from 
the author's Dictionary of Chemistry, published by Messrs. Car- 
vill,ofNewYork. 



CHEMISTRY. 175 

still doubtful,) are compound; air is composed of two 
gases, called oxygen and nitrogen ; water , of oxygen and 
hydrogen ; and earth of a variety of substances, which in 
their turn may be decomposed. 

JNature offers substances in four different states, solid, 
liquid, gaseous, or aerilorm, and imponderable, or such 
agents as are not known to possess weight. All matter 
is composed of molecules, particles, or atoms; these are 
subject to two opposing laws, the force of attraction, 
which tends to keep the atoms in contact, and that of 
caloric, or heat, which separates or repels them. 

Simple substances are those whose atoms are homogen- 
eous, orof the same nature. Thus zinc is considered as 
a simple substance, because it contains no other atoms 
than those of zinc. 

Compound substances are such as contain two or more 
simple elements; thus, brass is a compound body, which 
on being decomposed is found to contain atoms of zinc 
and copper. The particles which constitute a simple 
body are called integrant molecules, and the force which 
keeps them together is called cohesion. The particles 
which form a compound substance, are called constituent 
molecules and the force which unites them is termed 
affinity. Thus, zinc is formed of integrant molecules 
united by the force of cohesion, and brass is formed of 
constituent molecules united by the force of affinity. 

Affinity. Affinity is that kind of attraction which 
unites the heterogeneous molecules, or atoms of compound 
bodies. A knowledge of chemical affinity is very impor- 
tant in investigating chemical changes ; the first conse- 
quence of this law is a change of state of the bodies ; 
thus the union of two gasses, oxygen and hydrogen, 
produces water. A second and important consequence 
is a change of the property of the new substance ; thus 
from the combination of an acid and an alkali possessing 
opposite properties, results a salt resembling neither of 
the original substances. It is at present believed by 
most chemists, that chemical affinity depends essential- 
ly upon the electrical state of the substances, that elec- 
tricity is divided into two fluids 4 the one positive, the other 
negative, and that molecules of the same kind of electri- 



300 


it 


a 


tt a 


100 


a 


a 


ammonia 


100 


a 


a 


nitrogen 


100 


u 


a 


a u 


100 


a 


a 


it it 


100 


a 


tt 


a a 



176 CHEMISTRY. 

city repel, while those of opposite electricities attract 
each other. 

Theory of Atoms. By atoms or particles are under- 
stood parts incapable of division or diminution ; much pre- 
cision is given to the science of chemistry by admitting that 
bodies consist of atoms which unite in certain proportions ; 
thus in water we suppose two atoms of hydrogen united 
to one of oxygen ; or which is the same thing, two hun- 
dred atoms of the former to one hundred of the latter. 
The theory of the proportions between the elements of 
bodies is not hypothetical, but in many cases has been 
proved by experiment ; thus the following proportions 
are universally observed. 

200 atoms of hydrogen and 100 of oxygen=water. 

100 " nitrogen=ammoniacal gas. 
50 " carbon==salt of ammonia. 
50 " oxygen=protoxide of nitrogen. 
100 " =deutoxide of " 

150 '• =nitrous acid. 

250 " =nitric acid. 

Simple Elements. The number of simple elements 
admitted by chemists, varies with the progress of the 
science ; such substances as no chemical force can de- 
compose are called simple ; many which are thus named, 
will, no doubt, in process of lime be decomposed, while 
other elements, now unknown, will be brought to light, 
and found to be important agents in chemical changes. 

Instead of the four elements of the ancients, chemists 
at present admit more than 50 elemenlary bodies, if we 
include the imponderable agents, chlorine, and some 
other analogous substances; and the newly discovered 
bodies, Nomine, pluranium and thorium. 

These may be comprehended under two grand divi- 
sions ; 1. Imponderable agents, or such as have no 

known weight; as 

Caloric, 

Light, 

Electricity, 

Magnetism. 
II. Ponderable bodies, or such as have known weight; 
these may be divided into four classes. Class 1. Sup- 
porters of Combustion; as oxygen, &c. Class 2. Com- 
bustibles not metallic ; as hydrogen, &C. Class 3. MetaU 



4 CHEMISTRY. 177 

loids ; as silicon the base of silex, calcium of lime, &c. 
Class 4. Metals ; as gold, silver, &c. 

Language of Chemistry. Among the most important 
chemical agents is oxygen, the discovery of which 
wholly changed the aspect of the science and gave rise 
to our present nomenclature, or names of substances. 
The term combustible, considered as synonymous with 
oxygenable, is applied to all simple substances which can 
be made to unite with oxygen ; this union is accompa- 
nied with a disengagement of caloric or heat (though in 
some cases imperceptible,) and often of light; the sub- 
stance which has thus united with oxygen is said to be 
burnt, or oxygenated. 

The compounds which result from the union of oxy- 
gen with simple bodies have received the name of oxides 
and acids. When oxygen unites with a body but in one 
proportion, forming either an oxide or an acid, the sub- 
stance with which it combines is termed its radical; as 
in the oxide of zinc ; here zinc is the radical or base of 
the oxide. If the oxygen combines in two or three pro- 
portions, the first oxide is called protoxide, the second 
deutoxide, the third tritoxide. Wnen a body is oxidized 
in the highest degree, it is termed the peroxide ; for 
example, the combinations of oxygen and manganese, 
which present us with all these varieties of oxides. 

A similar rule governs with respect to the names of 
acids; if the oxygen forms but one acid, to its radical 
is added the termination ic, as boracic acid. But if oxygen 
combines in several proportions, the lowest proportion is 
expressed by ous, and the highest by ic as sulphurous and 
sulphuric acids ; to these terminations, are also added 
hyper, which signifies more, and hypo, less; thus hypo- 
sulphurous acids denotes a body possessing a less quan- 
tity of oxygen than sulphurous acid, &c. 

Oxygen is not the only agent which unites to com- 
bustible bodies to produce acids; hydrogen, chlorine, 
with some other substances, possess this property ; thus 
we have hydrochloric and hydriodic acids y resulting 
from the union of hydrogen with chlorine and iodine. 
When too binary,* burnt substances combine, a new 

* The term binary is derived from bl* } two ; a binary compound 



178 CHEMISTRY. 

compound results, which when the constituents are an 
acid and a metallic oxide, is called a salt. The salts 
are very numerous; they are named by varying the ter- 
mination of their acid; when the acid terminates in ous 
and ic, the salts end in ite and ate; thus by the term 
sulphate of tin, we understand the combination of tin 
with sulphuric acid ; sulphite of tin expresses the com- 
bination of the metal with sulphurous acid. 

Imponderable Agents. 1. Caloric. It would not 
be possible to explain the sensation of heat to one 
who never experienced it, any more than we could by 
words give to the blind an idea of colors, or to the deaf, 
of sounds. A person says, ' T am warm,' or extending 
his hand to a fire, says ' the fire is hot ;' in the first case 
he properly expresses the sensation of heat; in the 
second, the cause of this sensation. The fire itself is not 
suppossed to be hot, but only to possess the property of 
producing in the animal system, the sensation of heat. 
The cause of heat is distinguished from heat by the term 
caloric. 

2. Light, as is well known, proceeds from the sun and 
the fixed stars, as direct sources ; from the moon and 
other planets by reflection, and from various terrestrial 
substances, while experiencing combustion from phos- 
phorescent matter, foe. The nature of light and caloric 
is at present unknown ; from the intimate connexion 
between them, they have by some been considered only 
as modifications of the same substance. 

Among the most important properties of caloric are, 
1, its tendency to an equlibrium : 2, its power of dilating 
bodies ; 3, its susceptibility of being reflected from one 
body to another ; 4, its power of increasing chemical 
action. 

3. Electricity. From whence arises the peculiar 
sensation which is experienced when a piece of zinc 
placed upon the tongue, is brought in contact with a 
piece of copper placed under this organ? What power 
was that which, under the eyes of Galvani, animated the 

is one in which but two elements are united ; a ternary compound 
consists of three elements ; a quaternary, of four, &c. 



CHEMISTRY. 179 

limbs of a dead frog, when two metals, placed at the 
extremity of a naked nerve, were made to communicate 
by means of a metallic wire? What dazzling brilliancy 
flashes in the skies, or darts downward upon earth, 
fraught with terror and destruction ? It is the electric 
fluid. But what is the nature of this fluid which divides 
the material world into two great masses, the positively 
and negatively electrified? Is it simple or compound? 
Why is its presence so uniformly accompanied with light 
and heat 1 Are light and caloric anything more than 
modifications of this fluid, and is not electricity indeed 
the union of these two substances'? Electricity, what- 
ever it may be in itself, exercises an important influence 
in chemical changes. The instrument called the voltaic 
pile, causes the decomposition of a compound body, 
which is submitted to its action ; the elements possessing 
the positive electricity, go to the negative pole* and 
those which have the negative electricity go to the posi- 
tive pole of the pile. 

4. The magnetic fluid gives to a mineral called the 
load-stone (deutoxide of iron) the property of directing 
its two extremities, either to the north or south pole of 
the earth ; of attracting by its northern extremity the 
southern extremity of another magnet, while it repels its 
northern extremity or pole. It has recently been dis- 
covered that the magnetic needle changes its direction 
under the influence of the voltaic pile ; that the con- 
ducting wires communicate magnetic properties to steel 
and iron wires. It has therefore been conjectured that 
magnetic attraction is but another modification of elec- 
tricity. If these suggestions are founded in truth, we 
may perhaps regard all the imponderable agents as the 
result of one grand agent. 

Ponderable Substances. 

Class 1. Supporters of Combustion. All substances 
upon the globe except those already described, under the 

* The two extremities of a voltaic battery are called poles ; this 
instrument was first called the Galvanic battery, from Galvani ; 
afterwards, on being modified by Volta, it received its present 
name. 



180 CHEMISTRY. 

head of imponderables, are known to possess weight ; the 
specific gravity even of the lightest gases have been as- 
certained. After the discovery of oxygen, this gas was 
for some time considered as the only supporter of combus- 
tion, or the only substance which, by uniting with others, 
could produce the phenomena of combustion. At present 
four other analogous substances are ranked with oxygen 
viz. chlorine, iodine, fluorine, and bromine. When any 
one of these substances, existing in a binary compound, 
is submitted to the action of the voltaic pile, the support- 
er of combustion goes to the positive, and the combusti- 
ble to the negative pole. 

1. Oxygen unites with almost all substances, forming 
acid and oxide compounds ; its name is derived from the 
Greek, and signifies to generate oxides ; these and most 
of the acids being under the influence of this agent. Its 
properties are very numerous, since its combinations ex- 
ist in most bodies in the three kingdoms of nature. It 
has been observed by a celebrated chemist, that ' Oxygen 
may be considered as the central point, around which 
chemistry revolves.' 

The phenomena of combustion bear an intimate rela- 
tion to oxygen ; so that the slightest union of this gas 
with another substance, although neither accompanied 
with sensible heat or light, is considered as a low degree 
of combustion. Stahl supposed that the fire exhibited in 
combustion was occasioned by the loss of an imaginary 
substance, which he termed phlogiston, or the principle 
of heat. Lavoisier proved the materiality of ogygen, by 
showing that it was absorbed by the burnt substance ; 
but neither of them accounted for the heat produced at 
the moment of combustion, nor for the luminous appear- 
ance or flame which accompanied it. 

By observing the usual circumstances of kindling a 
fire, we perceive that the temperature of the combustible 
body is first increased by a borrowed heat. Now it is 
known that electricity is developed by an increase of 
heat, and that a union of the two electric fluids causes 
an elevation of temperature : thus, when the caloric is 
first added, the two electricities are brought forth; the 
negative from the oxygen, and the positive from the com- 



CHEMISTRY. 181 

bustible substance ; and the union of these two electri- 
cities is supposed to produce the heat which attends 
combustion. When we assist combustion by the action 
of the bellows, we direct a current of air upon the com- 
bustible substance ; the oxygen being impelled upon its 
surface, the fire becomes more intense. By repeating 
the action of the bellows, we successively elevate the 
temperature, until the combination of the two electrici- 
ties is sufficiently energetic to give rise to flame. The 
importance of oxygen as a supporter of combustion, is 
manifested by various experiments ; — even metals inflame 
and burn spontaneously in this gas. 

2. Chlorine was formerly called oxymuriatic acid, from 
its supposed constituents, oxygen and muriatic acid. It 
is at present, by the French and most English chemists, 
regarded as a simple substance ; and muriatic acid is 
now called hydro-chloric acid, being, as it is supposed, 
a combination of hydrogen and chlorine. Chlorine may 
be obtained by heating the pulverized peroxide of man- 
ganese with hydro-chloric acid ; the hydrogen of the lat- 
teT uniting with the oxygen furnished by the manganese, 
disengages its chlorine in the form of a yellowish green 
gas. Chlorine forms with oxygen several acids, as chlo- 
ric, oxygenated chloric, &c. Its union with metals pro- 
duces chlorides; these dissolved in water are hydro-chlo- 
rides. 

3. Iodine, at the common temperature, exists in a 
solid form; its color is a bluish gray; by heat it be- 
comes a violet colored gas; it forms with oxygen, iodic 
acid, and with hydrogen, hydriodic acid; combined 
with sulphur phosphorous, and with metals, it forms 
iodides. Iodine is obtained from sea-weeds, mineral 
waters, minerals and sponge. 

4. Fluorine is considered as the base of fluoric acid, 
but as its actual existence has not been proved, it must 
be regarded in the light of an imaginary substance. 
Whether fluorice acid consists of oxygen united to the 
combustible base fluorine, or whether, as is supposed by 
some, this base is united to hydrogen, (hence the term 
hydro fluorice, instead of fluorice acid,) seems not yet 
determined. This acid united to lime, constitutes the 

16 



182 CHEMISTRY. 

fiuate of lime, or the beautiful Derbyshire spar : with 
other bases it forms various jluates. 

5. Bromine, which has been recently discovered and 
added to the list of simple substances, is obtained from 
sea-water and the ashes of the same marine plants that 
furnish iodine ; it is a dark red liquid, so volatile as at 
the common temperature to throw off red vapours; with 
oxygen it forms bromic acid, which, uniting with various 
bases, forms bromates and bromides. 

Combustible Substances. Combustible substances are 
such as possess the property of uniting with oxygen and 
other supporters of combustion to form oxides and acids; 
they may be divided into the following classes : 

COMBUSTIBLES NOT METALLIC. 

METALLOIDS. 

METALS. 

Ponderable Substance^. 

Class 2. Combustibles not metallic. 

1, Hydrogens a term derived from the Greek, signifying 
to produce water, because this liquid is formed by the com- 
bination of hydrogen with oxygen : in the language of 
chemistry, water is the protoxide of hydrogen (or hydrogen 
with one proportion of oxygen ; ) when another proportion 
of oxygen is added, it becomes a dcntoxide of hydrogen, 
or oxygenated water. Hydrogen combined with oxygen 
and carbon exists in all vegetable matter; by the addi- 
tion of nitrogen we have the constituents of animal sub- 
stances. Hydrogen forms acids known by the general 
name oUiy dr acids ; with chlorine it forms hydrochloric, 
with iodine hydriodic acids, &c. with sulphur, carbon, 
&c, it forms sulphuretted hydrogen or hydrosulphric 
acid, carburetted hydrogen, &lc. It is highly combusti- 
ble, and burns with much flame, furnishing, by' its union 
with carbon, the gas used in cities for lighting streets, 
shops, &,c. On account of its being specifically lighter 
than atmospheric air, it is used for inflating balloons. 

2. Boron, combined with oxygen constitutes the base 
of boracic acid; it is by the decomposition of this acid 
that boron is obtained, it being never found pure in 
nature. 



CHEMISTRY. 183 

3. Carbon, when pure and crystallized, constitutes the 
diamond : it exists in charcoal with hydrogen, salts, and 
other products of combustion, and may be obtained from 
this combustion. Many attempts have been made to 
crystallize carbon, in order to obtain diamonds, but 
hitherto none have been successful. With a certain 
proportion of oxygen, carbon forms carbonic acid with a 
less proportion of oxygen, the oxide of carbon, or carbon- 
ic oxide gas. 

Carbon forms, with hydrogen, carburctted hydrogen, 
or gas light ; with the alkalies it forms carbonates, as 
carbonate of lime, (marble,) carbonate of soda, &c. A 
peculiar property of carbon is that of absorbing putrid 
miasmata, or gasses ; a knowledge of this fact has given 
rise to some important applications to culinary opera- 
tions, medicine, &c. 

4. Phosphorus has received its name from two Greek 
words,* signifying to bring light, this substance being al- 
ways luminous in the air. With oxygen in different pro- 
portions it forms phosphoric acid, phosphorous acid, hy- 
pophosphorous acid, and oxide of phosphorrus. With 
hydrogen it forms phosphuretted hydrogen, which in- 
flames spontaneously in the air, producing the chal- 
atious, or ignesfatui, which appear about burying-pla- 
ces and marshes. Bones and other animal-substances 
when decomposing, disengage oxygen, phosphorus, and 
hydrogen ; these united form phosphuretted hydrogen, 
which being specifically lighter than the atmosphere, 
ascends, and by its spontaneous combustion produces 
those luminous vapors, which the superstitious and igno- 
rant have referred to supernatural causes. 

5. Sulphur, united to oxygen, forms sulphuric and 
sulphurous acids ; these acids, united to bases, form 
sulphates and sulphites. With hydrogen, sulphur forms 
sulphuretted hydrogen, and with the metals, various 
sulphurets, as sulphuret of lead, &-c. 

6. Selenium is less known than any of the non-metal- 
lic combustibles ; it forms with oxygen selenic and selen- 
ious acids and the oxide of selenium. Selenious acid 

* Phos, light, and phero, I carry. 



184 CHEMISTRY* 

forms, with bases,, salts caMed selenites; selenie acid 
orms salts called seleniates. 

7. Nitrogen * when first discovered was called azotic, 
which signifies a depriver of life : this term appearing 
objectionable, as it is not a direct destroyer of life, that 
of nitrogen has been given from the circumstance of its 
being an essential ingredient in nitric acid. Nitrogen 
combines with oxygen in five different proportions, form- 
ing 

Protoxide of Nitrogen, 

Deutoxide of Nitrogen, 

Hypo-Nitrous Acid, 

Nitrous Acids, 

Nitric Acid. 

With hydrogen it forms ammonia; with carbon, cyano- 
gen; with chlorine and iodine, a chloride and an iodide. 
The compound substance cyanogen (signifying by its name 
the generator of blue) is the base of prussic acid (hydro- 
cyanic acid,,) which, uniting to iron, forms the color 
called prussian blue. 

Ponderable Substances-. 

Class 3. The 3Ictalloids, or Earthly and Alkaline 
' Combustibles. 
. The termination oids is from the Greek, and signifies 
like or similar ; thus the term metalloids denotes like 
metals. The substances comprehended in this class are, 
in the strictest sense, metals ; but they differ from other 
metals in their strong affinity for oxygen, which renders 
it extremely difficult either to obtain or preserve them in 
a state of purity. It is but recently that they have been 
known to exist ; potash, soda, lime, &c, were considered 
as pure alkalieSj.until Davy, by means of the voltaic pile, 
decomposed potash, and obtained a metal and oxygen; 
the metal he called potassium : thus it was discovered 

* In giving nitrogen a place among combustibles, it must be 
understood that it is not combustible in the common acceptation 
of the term, as it does not take fire upon being brought in con- 
tact with a burning substance ; but it is combustible in the chemi- 
eal sense of the term, since it unites with oxygen and other sur>- 
yorters of combustion.. 



CHEMISTRY. 185 

that potash is not an elementary substance but an oxide 
of potassium. Reasoning from analogy, Davy and some 
of the French chemists were led to believe that soda, 
lime, and other alkaline substances, had metallic bases: 
a series of brilliant and convincing experiments have 
now established this fact. Metals of this class seem 
naturally divided into two sections. 

Section 1. Earthy metals, or metals which are the 
bases of earths ; these are 

Silicon, the metal of Silex, 



Zirconium, 
Aluminum, ' £ 
Yttrium, •« 
Thorium, " 
Glucinum, " 
Magnesium, " 



Zirconia, 
' " Alumine, 
' " Yttria, 
' " Thorine, 
< " Glucina, 
' " Magnesia. 



Section 2. Alkaline metals. 

Calcium, the metal of Lime, 
Strontium, " " " Strontian, 
Barium, " " " Barytes, 
Sodium, the metal of Soda, 
Potassium, " " " Potash, 
Lithium, " " " Lithia. 



Class 4. Metals. 

This class contains substances which have in general 
less affinity for oxygen than the metalloids ; many of 
them, such as silver and gold, cannot be easily oxida- 
ted ; iron unites much more readily with oxygen, as may 
easily be perceived by exposing any iron vessel to the 
action of the atmosphere ; in a short time it will be found 
rusted, according to the common term, but which chem- 
ically is said to be oxidated, the metal having combined 
with oxygen from the atmosphere. Any article of gold 
or silver is not thus acted upon by the atmosphere, nor 
even by water, which iron soon decomposes, by uniting 
with its oxygen. 

We find, then, in examining the classification of 
elements or simple substances, 

16* 



IS6J CHEMISTRY. 

Imponderable bodies, 4/ 

Supporters of Combustion, 5 

Combustibles not metallic, 7 

Metals including metalloids, about 40* 

Binary Compounds. 
Binary compounds (from bis, two) are such as are 
formed by the union of two simple substances ; these 
compounds are of three kinds; 1st, those which are 
neither oxides nor acids ; 2d, oxides; and 3d, acids. 

The binary compounds, which possess neither the 
properties of acids or oxides, are to be found in the 
union of the simple combustibles among their own class; 
as, carburetted hydrogen, consisting of carbon and hydro- 
gen ; cyanogen, of carbon and nitrogen ; chloro-carbon- 
ous gas of chlorine and carbon. Sulphur with bases 
forms binary compounds, called sulphurets. Steel is a 
binary compound, formed of carbon and iron. Oxygen 
in one, two, three, and even four proportions, forms a 
great variety of binary compounds ; as with sulphur it 
forms in the highest proportion sulphuric acid, in a 
lower proportion it forms sulphurous acid, &,c. The 
most important acids are mostly binary compounds. 

With the metals, oxygen forms oxides, protoxides, &c t 
There are eight non-metallic oxides, viz. 

The Protoxide of Hydrogen, or water, 

Peroxide of Hydrogen, 

Oxide of Phosphorus, 

Oxide of Carbon, 

Oxide of Chlorine, or Euchlorine, 

Protoxide of Nitrogen, or Exhilarating Gas, 

Deutoxide of Nitrogen, 

Oxide of Selenium. 
The metallic oxides are very numerous; the peroxide 
of manganese is of great importance in chemistry, it 
being used for procuring chlorine oxygen, &c. The 
deutoxide of iron possesses magnetical attraction ; it is 
called the load-stone or map-net. The deutoxide of 
lead is commonly known by the name of white lead. 
With the earthy and alkaline metals, oxygen forms vari- 
ous oxides ; as the oxide of silicon or silex, the oxide of 
calcium, or lime ; the oxide of sodium, or soda; the oxide 
of potassium, or potash, &c. 

* For the arrangement of metals and their properties, see 
Dictionary of C hemistry — article Metal*. 



CHEMISTRY. 187 

Acids. 
Acids are distinguished by a sharp and pnngent taste : 
they change vegetable blue colors to red, and combine 
with meiallic oxides to form salts, or to alkaline oxides 
(as soda and potash) in order to neutralize or be neutral- 
ized by them. It was long believed that the acidifying 
power was confined to oxygen : hydrogen is now sup- 
posed to possess this property : thus the acids are now 
divided into oxacids and hydracids. The oxacids are 
numerous; some of the most important are, 

Nitric Acid, composed of Nitrogen and Oxygen, 
Sulphuric Acid, " " Sulphur and Oxygen, 
Carbonic Acid, " " Carbon and Oxygen. 

There are four hydracids, viz. hydro-suJphuric, (usu- 
ally called sulphuretted hydrogen,) hydriodic, hydro- 
chloric, and hydro-selenic. 

Quaternary Compounds. 

Salts. Salts are compounds of oxides with acids : as 
the acids are binary compounds, the salts are of course 
quaternary or quadruple combinations : they are of three 
kinds; 1st, neutral, presenting neither acid or alkaline 
properties; 2d, with excess of oxide; 3d, with excess of 
acid. The salts are divided into genera, each genus 
consists of the combination of one acid with various 
oxides, and is subdivided into three series, neutral, 
super (over), and sub (under.) In all salts of the same 
genus, and at the same degree of saturation, the quantity 
of acid is to the quantity of oxide in a uniform propor- 
tion. 

Genera of Scdts. 

Borates. The most important species is the sub-borate of soda. 
It is found in some lakes. 

Carbonates. This genus is distinguished by being decom- 
posed with effervescence, owing *to the escape of carbon- 
ic acid. Among the most important species of this genus are 
carbonate of lime, consisting of chalk, limestone, &c. ; sub- 
carbonate of soda, commonly called soda ; carbonate of am- 
monia, produced by the decomposition of animal matter ; car- 
bonate of iron, a valuable mineral ; carbonate of copper, of various 
colors, as blue, green, &c. ; carbonate of lead is white lead ; sub- 
carbonate of potash is the potash of commerce. 

Phosphates. In this genus is the phosphate of lime, which forms 
an important part of the bones of animals, and is used for the 
manufacture of phosphorus. Phosphate of cobalt, by calcining 
with alum, forms a beautiful color, called Thenard's blue. 



188 CHEMISTRY. 

Sulphates. The most common species which exist in nature 
are those of lime and barytes. Sulphate of Lime is gypsum, or 
plaster of Paris. Sulphate of Magnesia is Epsonis salts. Sulphate 
of Potash. Alum is a double sulphate of potash and alumine. 
Sulphate of Soda is Glauber's salts. Sulphate of Iron, combined 
with nutgalls, forms ink. Sulphate of Copper (Deuto) is copperas, 
or blue vitrei. 

Nitrates. But three species of this genus are found in nature. 
Nitrate of Potash is saltpetre ; it is of important use in the man- 
ufacture of gun-powder. Nitrate of Bismuth is used in the man- 
ufacture of pearl white. Nitrate of Silxcr is lunar caustic. 

Chlorates. None of this genus are found native. It contains 
the Chlorates of Potash (oxymuriate of potash,) soda, lime, &c. 
Ilidro Chlorates were formerly called muriates. When crystal- 
lized or dried, they lose the hydrogen of their acid, and become 
chlorides ; these in their turn, when dissolved in water, form 
hydro-chlorates. Hyrdo-chl orate of lime (muriate of lime) is of use 
in medicine and in chemical experiments. Hydro-chlorate of 
ammonia is manufactured by the reaction of marine salt upon the 
sulphate of ammonia. 

Chlorides* There are many metallic chlorides, as chlorine 
has a strong affinity for metals. Chloride of Calcium is distin- 
guished by having affinity for water. Chloride of Sodium is 
common salt; its properties are known in all civilized countries. 
Chloride of Soda has of late been found useful in removing 
offensive gases from the atmosphere, and preventing infection 
from sick persons or dead bodies. The chlorine is supposed to 
decompose the noxious exhalations, by uniting with the elements 
of which they consist, particularly the hydrogen. Chloride of 
Lime is commonly called bleaching powder ; its properties are not 
unlike those of the chloride of soda. Chloride of Mercury is sub- 
divided into the li-chloride (deuto-chloride) which is corrosive 
sublimate, and the proto- chloride, which is calomel. There are 
many other important species in this genus, as the chlorides of 
manganese, iron, silver, &c. 

Hydrio dates. But one species of importance is known, viz. 
the Hydriodate of Potash. 

Chromates. The most important species is the Chromate of Lead, 
which is of a beautiful yellow. There are other genera of salts, as 
the nitrites, sulphites, phosphites, &c, which are formed by combi- 
nations of nitrous, sulphurous and phosphorus acids with bases; 
the properties of theee, although in many respects differing from 
the salts formed with the higher acids, are not in general very 
dissimilar. 

The organic kingdom furnishes an almost infinite 
variety of important compounds; vegetable acids are 
very numerous; the acetic, tartaric, oxalic, malic, kinic, 
foe. are all of use in medicine and in the arts. Among 

* The chlorides, although mentioned here, are not proper salts; 
they are analogous to oxides^ iodides > and bromides. 



HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. 



18& 



the vegetable alkalies are morphia, the narcotic principle 
of opium, cinchonia and quinia, extracts of the Peruvian 
bark, with many others. Oils, resin, wax, alcohol, 
ether, sugar, starch, tannin, lignin, and various coloring 
substances, are all products of the vegetable kingdom. 
Salts are formed by the union of the vegetable alkalies 
with acids, as the sulphate of quinine, of morphine, &c. 

Amimal Chemistry presents a new set of compounds, 
as fibrin, gelatine, acids, and oils; it investigates the 
compounds of all animal matter, as bones, teeth, blood, 
and the various secretions ; and traces all those to their 
final or ultimate elements, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and 
nitrogen. 

Chemistry takes a wider range than any other depart- 
ment of Physical Science ; in the mineral kingdom it 
penetrates the hardest materials, and inquires into the 
nature of their elementary constituents. In the vegeta- 
ble substances, chemistry with scrutinizing glance de- 
tects their medicinal and nutritious qualities : do these 
require to be sepaiated from their various combinations, 
this almost magic art can disentangle and set them free. 
In the animal kingdom, chemistry performs a high and 
solemn office, teaching proud man himself, that his own 
material frame, beautiful in its aspect and noble in its 
bearing, is in truth but a compound of a few simple 
elements, which, as they have previously existed in other 
combinations,twill again be dissipated to become parts 
of the worm that ' feeds sweetly ' upon the decaying 
body, and of the noisome weed or lowly plant, that springs 
from the soil which covers his earthly remains. 



History of Chemistry. 

The term chemistry is by some supposed to be derived 
from the Greek word kemia, or the Arabian chamia, 
which signify to burn ; and that this science at first 
signified the examining of substances by fire. "By others, 
the word chemistry is supposed to have been used by the 
Egyptians in a sense equivalent to the present meaning 
of the term Natural Philosophy. Science among the 



190 HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. 

Egyptians, was for a long time confined to the wise men, 
or magi, who carefully concealed their knowledge from 
the people. Plutarch supposes that the study of nature, 
for this reason, was called chemistry, which word in his 
opinion signified the secret science. Whatever might 
have been the degree of knowledge of nature possessed 
by the Egyptians, they were probably acquainted with 
the most important facts on which the science of chem- 
istry is founded. 

The Israelites gained from the Egyptians some know- 
ledge of the art of working metals, and of dyeing red, 
blue, purple and scarlet. The Phoenicians are supposed 
to have understood the manufacture of glass, perfumes, 
and imitations of precious stones. This knowledge was 
successfully communicated to the Carthaginians and 
Greeks, and by them to the Romans ; the two latter 
people seem, however, to have possessed but a very limit- 
ed knowledge of any chemical operations, or any branch 
of analytical science. Plato seemed sensible of this when 
he makes an Egyptian priest say to Solon, ' You Greeks 
will be always children ; for you have neither the an- 
tiquity of knowledge, nor the knowledge of antiquity.' 
The religious belief of the Greeks and Romans, may 
afford some excuse for their ignorance of nature : who 
among them would have dared to take water from a 
fountain or a river, and decompose it by fire ? They 
would consider it as a sacrilege against rtie Naiad, or 
the protecting divinity of the stream : the grand priest 
would have exclaimed against the impious wretch, and 
the people in their indignation would have torn him to 
pieces. 

Although the Egyptians were idolaters, yet less imagin- 
ation was mingled with their religious belief; and free 
from many of the superstitions which kept other nations 
in intellectual bondage, they dared to look into the 
secrets of nature. Pliny the elder, places the Egyptians 
as first in the knowledge of the sciences. Democritus of 
Thrace, who flourished 500 B. C. travelled into Chal- 
dea, Persia and Egypt: in the last country he gained a 
knowledge of chemistry that appeared to Pliny almost 
super-human ; and yet this classical and venerable land 



HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. 191 

has transmitted to us scarce a vestige of any discoveries ! 
But we cease to be surprised at this, when we reflect that 
the library of Alexandria, which contained their treas- 
ures of knowledge, was successively destroyed by the 
victorious Romans and Mahometans. 

Science, driven from Egypt, Greece, and Rome, in the 
4th century ; took refuge in Arabia, and chemistry ap- 
peared under the name of Alchemy. 

The alchemists imagined that gold existed in all 
metals ; and it was their great object to ascertain the 
manner in which it might be separated from its combi- 
nations, and obtained pure : they expected to find some 
substance which would enable them to perform this 
great operation : this imaginary substance, which some 
pretended to have discovered, was called the philosopher's 
stone. Those who studied alchemy pretended to great 
secrecy, affirming that some heavy calamity would fall 
upon any one who should reveal the principles of the 
science ; keeping themselves separate from the world, 
they invented mysterious characters, by which the initiat- 
ed could hold correspondence without danger of dis- 
covery. 

Among the alchemists, notwithstanding the folly of 
their pursuit, and the baseness of their deceptions, we 
find the names of a few distinguished for talents and 
learning. Albert the Great, a German, who lived in the 
12th century, wrote a work upon alchemy, in which he 
described the chemical process then in use. His trea- 
tise on metals was written with clearness, and showed a 
mind familiar with many of the phenomena of nature. 
His countrymen astonished at the extent of his know- 
ledge, accused him of magic, and threw him into prison. 
His pupil, Thomas Aquinus, wrote upon alchemy, and 
for the first time the word amalgam was introduced into 
chemistry. In his writings, astrology and alchemy were 
united. 

In England, contemporary with Albert the Great, was 
Roger Bacon, the most enlightened and judicious of all 
the alchemists. In his treatise ' De mirabili potestate 
artis et natural (the wonderful power of art and 
nature,) he protested against the foolish belief in magic, 



]92 HISTORY OP CHEMISTRY. 

charms, and necromancy ; he asserted that superstition 
tyrannized over the human mind through ignorance of 
natural phenomena. He was acquainted with the 
camera obscura, telescope, and the use of gun-powder. 
Notwithstanding he carefully concealed his labors, he 
was accused of magic, and imprisoned. Raymond Lully 
treated of the preparations of acids and phosphorus. 

About the middle of the 12th century, Arnoldde Villa 
Nova, a physician, consulted by kings and popes, direct- 
ed alcohol and the oil of turpentine to be used in medi 
cinal preparations. John and Isaac Holland published 
several treatises on chemistry, with plates representing 
the apparatus which they used. They made experi- 
ments upon human blood, which have aided the most 
recent discoveries. They invented the art of enamelling 
and coloring glass and precious stones. 

Basil Valentine, a German monk, taught that all sub- 
stances were composed of salt, sulphur and mercury: 
he was the first who applied chemistry to medicine. 
The most important of his works was called ' Currus 
Triumyhalis Antimonii,' (triumphal chariot of anti- 
mony;) in this he gave such an account of his experi- 
ments with this metal, as excited an interest among all 
the physicians of Europe. 

An opinion had long prevailed among the alchemists 
that a medicine might be discovered which should be an 
universal cure or panacea * for all diseases ; some 
asserted that this could be found in the philosopher's 
stone, which not only converted metals into gold, but, 
among other extraordinary virtues, possessed the power 
of rendering man immortal upon the earth. 

Of all the alchemists, none appear to have pretended 
to so many discoveries as Parcaelsus, a native of Switzer- 
land, born in 1493. He confidently boasted that he was 
in possession of an elixir which would render him im- 
mortal , but he died in the prime of life, leaving his 
followers overwhelmed with shame and dismay. The 
last of the alchemists was Van Hehnont, who boasted of 

* This term is derived from two Greek words, pan, all, and 
akos, medicine, signifying to cure all. . 



HISTORY OP CHEMISTRY. 193 

being in possession of the universal remedy to which he 
gave the name of alkahest. 

The alchemistical system crumbling into ruins, chem- 
istry, like the fabled Phoenix, arose from its ;ishes. 
Bcccher, a professor of medicine in Germany, taught 
that the earth was not a simple element, but a combina- 
tion of elements; he attempted to establish chemistry on 
its true basis, that of analysis: his experiments were of 
great use to succeeding chemists. 

p. Stahl, the pupil of Beccher, remodelled and simplified 
the theory of his predecessors, attempted to explain the 
process of combustion, and to reduce the phenomena of 
chemistry under a certain number of heads. His theory 
of combustion supposed that a certain substance, which 
he called phlogiston, formed a part of all combustible 
bodies, and that its separation constitutes fire. On 
account of the boldness of his investigations, he was 
called the sublime Stahl. He is the first chemist who 
appeared to have any clear ideas of chemical affinity ; 
he even suggested the theory of double elective at- 
traction. 

At this period many learned men were engaged in 
chemical pursuits, and the science was enriched by the 
discoveries of Boyle, Agricola, Glauber, Kunckcl, 
Libavius, Bohnius, Lemcry, and others. 

Boerhave, an accomplished philosopher and celebrat- 
ed physician, published a system of chemistry in 1732, 
which contained a more ample collection of chemical 
experiments, and more clear and precise directions for 
repeating them, than any previously offered to the world. 
He gave an account of vegetable analyses, more simple 
and scientific than any which had before appeared. 

Notwithstanding all these improvements, chemistry 
was yet in a very imperfect state ; some of the absurd 
notions of the alchemists still remained, and loose and 
unsatisfactory reasonings, founded on vague analogies, 
were employed. It was not for a common mind to 
attempt to remove the shackles of prejudice which ages 
had been riveting upon the human intellect. At this 
time appeared Bergmann, a man gifted with a quick and 
discriminating genius, a moral courage that could look 
17 



194 HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. 

above 'the world's dread laugh,' and a devoted enthu- 
siasm for the science of chemistry. 

With a true analytical method he scrutinized nature, 
with a view to ascertain her laws of aggregation ; he 
arranged the well-known tables of elective attractions, 
and published many important experiments upon volcan- 
ic products. The clearness of his conceptions, the 
accuracy of his observations, and the methodical ar- 
rangement which he introduced into the science of 
chemistry, entitled Bergmann to a rank among its 
greatest benefactors., A native of the same country, 
and contemporary with Linnaeus, it was his high destiny 
to labor with almost equal success in the cause of nat- 
ural science. While Linnaeus was investigating the 
external forms of nature, with a view to the systematic 
arrangement of the animal, vegetable, and mineral 
kingdoms, Bergmann was analyzing and arranging the 
elements of which they are composed. With the frank- 
ness and generosity which marks a noble mind, he sent 
to Linnaeus an account of his experiments and observa- 
tions. The latter equally generous, forwarded Bergman's 
communication's to the academy of Stockholm with this 
inscription, ' Vide,' et obstupui (I have seen, and am 
amazed). 

Scheele, the pupil and friend of Bergmann, enriched 
chemistry with new and important facts : he died in 
1786, two years after the death of his predecessor ; his 
name is commemorated in that of a compound of cop- 
per and arsenic, (arsenite of copper) called Scheele' s 
green. By a late distinguished chemist,* he is called 
the Newton of chemistry. 

Soon after the death of Bergmann and Scheele, a 
series of splendid discoveries marked the advancement 
of chemical science in Great Britain. Dr. Black discov- 
ered the existence of latent caloric, and that limestone 
is a compound of lime and an aerial fluid, which he 
called fixed air, now called carbonic acid gas. This 
discovery gave rise to pneumatic chemistry, or that 
branch of the science which relates to gasses. 

* Thomson. 



HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. 195 

Mr. Cavendish soon after this discovered hydrogen 
gas. In 1770, Dr. Priestley commenced a series of pneu- 
matic discoveries : he observed that by heating certain 
metals a kind of air was obtained, much purer than the 
atmosphere, and in combustible substances with great 
brilliancy. It is scarcely necessary to say that this was 
oxygen gas. 

While the science of chemistry was receiving these 
important acquisitions in one part of Europe, Lavoisier 
in France had already commenced his brilliant, career, 
and opened to his countrymen that pathway to scientific 
distinction, which so many have since pursued with 
almost unrivalled success. Lavoisier found that the 
recent discoveries with respect to gasses could not be 
reconciled with the phlogistic theory of combustion; 
and after years of patient and laborious investigation, 
he published the grand theory which considered oxygen 
as the supporter of combustion. This theory at first 
met, with general opposition, but gradually gained sup- 
porters until Cavendish, Berthollet, Black, Morveau, 
I^ourcroy, and Kirwan, (the latter of whom had strong- 
ly opposed it) were found among its disciples. 

In 1787, Lavoisier, Fourcroy, Berthollet, and Guyton 
de Morveau, were appointed by the French academy to 
decide upon a nomenclature of chemistry r with great care 
and research they formed t.rjat, which is now the almost 
universal language of the science. 

Great Britain may boast of many distinguished mod- 
ern chemists ; of Davy, the powerful advocate of the 
chloridic theory, and the inventor of the safety lamp; 
Murray, Brande, and Thomson, with many others, whose 
labors have enlightened the present age, and whose 
works will render their names familiar to succeeding 
generations. 

On the continent, Berzelius, Vauquelin, Berthollet, 
Gay-Lussac, Thenard, Dumas, Dulong, Pelletier, and 
others, have carried their researches and analyses to a 
degree of accuracy and clearness hitherto* unrivalled. 
The year 1829 is memorable for the loss sustained by 
science, in the death of two of her most distinguished 



196 HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. 

votaries ; but long will the halo of glory encircle the 
venerated names of Vauquelin and Davy. 

In America, Franklin, fearlessly encountering the 
lightning from heaven, proved its identity with electri- 
city, and taught mankind to guard against this awful 
agent of destruction. Hare, Silliman,* Eaton, with 
other veterans in the science, and less experienced 
chemists, are interrogating nature with a brighter pros- 
pect of discovery than that which encouraged the efforts 
of their predecessoro : for, as the field of discovery and 
improvement is infinite, in proportion as facilities for 
them are multiplied, so are the motives for exertion. 
As correct would it have been, at the period when earth, 
fire, and water were considered as the four elements of na- 
ture, for an investigating mind to have rested in this 
belief, as at this day to suppose that we have arrived at 
the maximum of human knowledge, or have already 
learned as much of the properties of nature as its Al- 
mighty Creator wills that we should know. 

From the nature of chemical experiments , which in 
most cases require either firmness of nerve, unshrinking 
courage, or physical strength, and sometimes all these 
qualities combined, woman may not aspire to add to the 
stock of chemical science, discoveries of her own ; but, 
gifted with the intellectual power to trace the relation of 
cause and effect, and comprehend the wonderful pro- 
perties of matter which science reveals, she may dare to 
raise the curtain which conceals the operations of nature, 
and, entering her laboratory, behold the grand experi- 
ments there exhibited : nor should it be considered a 
small privilege that she is permitted to share in the 
sublime discoveries of science, and to feast on the ban- 
quet of knowledge, prepared by others. 

Is it not more noble for an immortal soul thus to em- 
ploy itself in learning the second causes by which the 
Deity operates in the material world, than to waste the 
precious hours of existence in dreaming over sickly 

* Perhaps no chemical work has ever been published, which 
exhibits objects of the science in a clearer light than Professor 
Silliman's late work on chemistry. - 

f 



NATURAL HISTORY. 197 

works of fancy? Can the admirers of sublimity and 
beauty find none in the study of nature? or can the 
lover of the marvellous find no wonders in her opera- 
tions? There is in chemistry, poetry to satisfy the 
most extravagant fancy, and in the sublime truths of 
the science are mysteries far surpassing the boldest con- 
ceptions of human genius. 



LECTURE XVII. 

Natural History. — Zoology. 

In the study of nature, we become famiiiar with the 
works of God ; we contemplate the heavens above, the 
materials of the earth beneath, the objects around us, and 
we feel that they must have had a divine author. Whether 
we view the works of nature on a large scale, as exhibit- 
ed in the more magnificent parts of creation, or with 
microscopic eye examine the structure of a crystal, an 
insect, or a blade of grass, we are alike struck with 
wonder and awe ; we bow in adoration to Him for whose 
comprehension nothing is too great, and whose minute 
providence is over all, even the least of his works. The 
study of nature has a tendency both to humble and 
exalt man in his own eyes. When he compares his own 
powers, physical and mental, with that omnipotence 
which the works of nature manifest, he feels that he is 
' less than nothing and vanity ;' but when he finds within 
himself faculties capable of investigating the properties 
of these wonderful objects, of arranging them in classes, 
of discovering their laws of organization, and of decom- 
posing them into their original elements, he feels him- 
self ennobled ; he realizes that these faculties must be 
those of a soul capable of still higher attainments. It is 
indeed salutary to hold converse with the works of God, 
the volume of nature which has been emphatically 
termed, ' elder scripture writ by God's own hand.' 
17* 



198 ZOOLOGY. 

We have observed that all material bodies, all animals,, 
plants, and minerals, are subject to chemical observations 
and experiments ; — but for this, they must be pulverized, 
dissolved, distilled or melted. By a series of these pro- 
cesses, the chemist arrives at the knowledge of the ele- 
ments which compose the various bodies, organic and 
inorganic, which he meets with. 

In Natural History, a term which comprehends 
Zoology, Botany, and Mineralogy, we view animals, 
plants, and minerals, as they exist in their complete 
state : we observe their external forms, and the various 
changes which nature produces in them. The first 
object of the naturalist is to know the productions of 
nature, and to distinguish the various kinds or species 
from each other. The next is the arrangement of these 
species under more general divisions, and again to sim- 
plify these divisions, until, under a few classes, he 
arranges the almost infinite variety of animal, vegetable 
and mineral productions. 

Zoology. 

The term zoology is derived from the Greek zoe, life, 
and logos, discourse : this science examines and classes 
those organized beings which are termed animal. The 
distinction between animal and vegetable life is not, in 
all cases, so clear as might be imagined, yet in general 
it is sufficiently apparent. ' The animal has the power 
to move about, and to seek the nourishment most agree- 
able ; it utters audible sounds, and possesses sensation 
and apparent consciousness. The plant, on the contrary, 
is confined to a particular spot, having no other nourish- 
ment than substances which themselves come in contact 
with it ; exhibiting no consciousness, nor to common 
observation any sensation. It is only when we examine 
with close attention the various phenomena in the vege- 
table and animal kingdoms, that we learn to doubt as to 
the exact boundaries by which they are separated. 

For a general view of the science of zoology, I shall 
avail myself of the sketch appended to the ' View of Na- 
ture ' in my Lectures on Botany. One great distinction 



ZOOLOGY. 199 

in the animal kingdom is with respect to the vertebrae,, or 
back bones ; such animals as have these, are called 
vertebral, such as have not, are called avertebral. 

There are four great families of vertebral animals, 
viz. 

1. Quadrupeds. The science of which has no popu- 
lar name. This family includes only four-footed animals ; 
as ox, dog, mouse. 

2. Birds. The study of which is called ornithology, 
from ornis, a bird, and logos. This family includes the 
feathered tribe; as pigeon, goose, wren. 

3. Amphibious animals (from amp hi, both, and bios, 
life, signifying to live in two ways.) The science which 
treats of these is called amphibiology : it includes those 
cold-blooded animals which are capable of living on dry 
land, or in the water ; as tortoise, lizard, serpent, frog. 

4. Fishes. The science of which is called ichthy- 
ology from ichthus, a fish, added to logos. It includes 
all aquatic animals which have gills and fins; as shad, 
trout, sturgeon, eel. 

The avertebral animals are divided into two classes. 

1. Insects. The science of which is called entomology 
(from entomos an insect ) It includes all animals with 
jointed bodies, which have jointed limbs; as flies, spi- 
ders, lobsters. 

2. Vermes. The science of which is called hermin- 
tlwlogy. It includes all soft animals of the avertebral 
division, which have no jointed limbs, with or without 
hard coverings : as angle-worms, snails, oysters, and in- 
fusory animals, (animalculce). 

According to the classification of Linnaaus, with some 
modifications by Cuvier, the Animal Kingdom is ar- 
ranged under four grand divisions, viz. 

Vertebral, Molluscous, Articulated, and Radi- 
ated. These are subdivided into classes and orders. 

First Grand Divsion. — Vertebral Animals. 

Class 1. Mammalia, or such as at first are nourished 
by milk. This class have lungs, and peculiar organs 
for imbibing their food, during their first stage of exist' 
ence. 



200 ZOOLOGY. 

The First order is called Bi-mani (from bis two, 
mani hands;) this order includes man only ; we find 
here no generic or specific differences, but the following 
varieties. 

1. Caucasian race, anciently inhabiting the country 
about the Caspian and Black. Seas; from these we are 
descended. 

2. The Mongolian, the ancient inhabitants about 
the Pacific Ocean, from whom the Chinese are de- 
scended. 

3. The Ethiopian or Negro race. 

The Second order contains the quadru-mani, from 
quatuor, four, and mani, hands. These have thumbs or 
toes, separate, on each of the four feet. We here find 
orang-outang (sometimes called the wild man) and the 
monkey. 

The Third order contains carnivorous animals, or 
flesh feeders, having no separate thumbs, or having great 
toes without nails ; as the dog and cat. 

The Fourth order contains the Gnawers, having no 
canine teeth (those which are called eye-teeth), feeding 
almost wholly on vegetable substances ; as the Rat and 
Squirrel. 

The Fifth order is Edentata, or animals wanting 
teeth ; as the sloth and armadillo. 

The Sixth order, Pachyderma, thick skin animals 
with hoofs ; as the elephant, horse, and hog. 

The Seventh order contains the Ruminating animals, 
such as chew the cud, having front teeth (incisors) 
below only, and feet with hoofs cloven ; as the ox, sheep, 
and camel. 

The Eighth order, Cete, contains aquatic animals, such 
as live in water, having no kind of feet, or whose feet 
are fin-like limbs; as the whale and dolphin. 

We have enumerated all the orders of the class Mam- 
malia, as it is the one on which man is placed ; we 
shall now notice the remaining classes of animals, with- 
out going into so minute a detail of their orders. 

Class II. Contains Birds (Aves), which are distin- 
guished by having the body covered with feathers and 
down, long naked jaws, two wings formed for flight . they 



ZOOLOGY. 201 

are called bi-ped (from bis two, and pedes feet.) The 
orders in this class, are chiefly distinguished from each 
- other by the peculiar make of the bill and feet. 

Class III. Amphibia, contains amphibious animals 
including what are commonly called reptiles. It is divid- 
ed into four orders. 

1. With shells over their back, and four feet; as 
the tortoise and turtle. 

2. Covered with scales, and having four feet; as 
the crocodile and lizard. 

3. Body naked, destitute of feet; as serpents and 
snakes. 

4. The body naked, and having two, or four feet; 
as the frog and toad. 

Class IV. Contains Fishes (Pisces), natives of the 
water, unable to exist for any length of time out of it; 
swift in their motions, and voracious in their appetites, 
breathing by means of gills, which are generally united 
in a long arch ; swimming by means of radiated fins, and 
mostly covered with scales. 

Second Grand Division. 

Class V. 3follusca, bodies soft without bones, but 
their muscles attached to a skin which forms a calcare- 
ous covering, called a shell, and is in many cases, pro- 
duced from their skin. These animals possess no 
organs of sense but those of taste and sight, and these 
are often wanting. The nautilus and cuttle-fish are of 
the highest order of Molluscous animals. 

One order contains animals without head, having a 
shell usually of two pieces; these are called Bi-valves ; 
as the oyster, clam, and snail. The study of concholo- 
gy (from conchus a shell) has relation to this class of 
animals. 

Third Grand Division. 

We proceed next to those animals called Articulated; 
these have jointed trunks and mostly jointed limbs. 
They possess the faculty of locomotion, or changing 
place : some have feet, and others are destitute of them; 
the latter move by trailing along their bodies. 

Class VI. Annelida, contains such animals as have 



202 ZOOLOGY. 

red blood, without a bony skeleton ; bodies soft and 
Long, the covering divided into transverse rings; they 
live mostly in water ; some of them secrete calcareous 
matter, which forms a hard covering or shell ; as the 
earth or angle-worm, and leech. 

Class VII. Crustacea, contains animals without blood, 
with jointed limbs fastened to a calcareous crust; they 
breathe by a kind of gills. 

Class VIII. Arachnida, contains spider-like animals 
without blood, having jointed limbs, without horns: 
they breathe by little openings, which lead to organs 
resembling lungs, or by little pipes distributed over the 
whole body : these do not pass through any important 
change of state, as insects do ; they have mostly six or 
eight eyes, and eight feet, and feed chiefly on living 
animals. Examples of this class are the spider and scor- 
pion. 

Class IX. Insecta, or insects, without blood, having 
jointed limbs and horns : they breathe by two pipes, 
running parallel to each other, through the whole body ; 
they have two horns; they are mostly winged, having 
one or two pairs : a few are without wings ; mostly with 
six feet. They possess all the senses whish belong to 
any class of animals except that of hearing. 

The winged insects pass through several changes or 
metamorphoses. The Butterfly is first an egg; this 
when hatched is long and cylindrical, and divided into 
numerous rings, having many short legs, jaws, and sev- 
eral small eyes; this is the larva, or caterpillar. At 
length k casts off its skin, and appears in another form 
without limbs. It neither takes nourishment, moves, 
nor gives any sign of life • this is called the chrysalis. 
In process of time, by examining it closely, the imperfect 
form of the butterfly may be seen through the envelope ; 
this, it soon bursts, and a perfect butterfly appears. 
When about to pass into the chrysalis state, of which 
they appear to have warning, the insect selects some 
place where it may repose safely during its temporary 
death.* The silk-worm spins itself a silken shroud, and 
from this all our silk is obtained. 

* May not this be considered as a lesson to man to anticipate 



ZOOLOGY. 203 

Fourth Grand Division. — Radiated Animals. 

Class X. Zoophites, or animal plants. Here we find 
the lowest beings in the animal kingdom. Some of the 
orders of this class contain animals which have neither 
heart, brains, nerves nor any apparent means of breath- 
ing. These are sometimes called animal plants ; many 
of them, as the corals, are fixed to rocks, and never 
change place. The term coral includes under it many 
species: the red coral used for ornaments is the most 
beautiful. The substance of coral, when subjected to 
chemical analysis, is found to consist chiefly of carbonate 
of lime; the hard crust which envelopes the animal sub- 
stances, is an excretion formed by it in the same way as 
the shells of the oyster and lobster are produced, or as 
nails grow upon the fingers and toes of the human body. 
The quantity of this carbonate of lime elaborated by the 
little coral animal is truly wonderful ; islands are formed 
and harbors blocked up by it. Some of the zoophites 
are fixed, by a kind of root, to the bottom of the sea ; 
some, as the sea-nettle, which appears like the segment 
of a circle, are carried about by the motion of the wa- 
ters, without any voluntary motion, as are also the sea 
daisy, sea mary-gold, and the sea carnation, so named 
from an apparent resemblance to those plants. We find 
here the sea-fan, the sea-pen and the madrepore, the 
latter of which are often thrown together in vast quan- 
tities. 

The Sponge also belongs to this class of strange 
animal substances ; it consists of a fibrous mass, contain- 
ing a jelly-like substance, which, when touched, discov- 
ers a slight sensation, the only sign of life manifested by 
it. There are many species of sponge ; those most val- 
ued in the arts are found in the Mediterranean Sea and 
Indian Ocean. Some grow upon rocks, and are found 
covering the interior of submarine caves. The Spon- 
gia parasitica is seen growing upon the back and legs 
of a species of crab^ sometimes as many as forty indi- 
vidual sponges extend themselves over the the crab, 

and provide for the change in his existence, which his bodily in- 
firmities and daily observation teach him is to be his own lot ? 



204 ZOOLOGY. 

impeding the motion of its joints, spreading like a cloak 
over its back, or forming for its head grotesque and 
towering ornaments, from which the poor crab vainly 
attempts to disencumber itself. 

Some species of the sponge grow to a very large size ; 
one has been found in the East Indies in the form of a 
cup, capable of containing ten gallons of water. The 
fibrous part of the sponge is the skeleton of the animal : 
the large apertures serve to carry out fluids from within ; 
while the water by which the animal is nourished is 
imbibed by minute pores : this continual circulation of 
water is one of the most important functions of the liv- 
ing sponge. 

These animals resemble plants in their manner of 
producing others ; they form a species of germ, like the 
bud growing upon the stalk ; this falls off from the stem, 
and becomes a perfect animal. If a part of one of those 
animals is separated from the rest, it will itself be as 
perfect a living animal as was the whole before. A 
polypus can be divided into as many animals as it con- 
tains atoms ; some of this order are very properly called 
hydras (many headed). Besides these, there is another 
order of animal substances, infusoria, which appear like 
a homogeneous mass, having no appearance of any limbs 
whatever ; these are either angular, oval or gobular. 

At the head of the animal kingdom we found man, suf- 
ficiently resembling brute animals in his material frame to 
constitute part of an extensive class, embracing the ape, 
elephant, and dog ; yet between the lowest degree of in- 
telligence in the human race, and the highest faculties 
of brutes, there is a line of distinction marked by the 
hand of the Almighty, in characters too obvious for 
doubt. God said, ' Let us make man in our own image ; 
and he breathed into him the breath of life. And man 
became a living soul. 3 

Some writers have attempted to show that man differs 
only from the inferior order of animals in possessing a 
greater variety of instincts. But however wonderful may 
appear the instinctive perceptions of brutes, they are 
destitute of reason, and incapable of being the subjects 
of moral government. We must, therefore, both from 



ZOOLOGY. 205 

our own observation and the declarations of scripture, 
infer, that the faculties of man differ, not in degree only, 
but distinctly in their nature, from those of all other be- 
ings upon our globe. 

1 Man,' says Buffon, ' by his form, and the perfection 
of his organs, and as the only being on earth endowed 
with reason, seems properly placed at the head of the 
kingdoms of nature. All in him announces the lord of 
the earth ; his form marks his superiority over all living 
beings ; he stands erect in the attitude of command ; he 
can gaze upon the heavens ; on his face is imprinted the 
character of dignity ; the image of his soul is painted 
upon his features, and the excellence of his nature pene- 
trates through his material organs and animates the ex- 
pression of his countenance.' 

In the orders of animals next to man, we find the 
senses of sight, touch, taste, and smell, equally perfect as 
those possessed by him, and in some cases they are even 
more acute; but as we proceed downwards through the 
gradations of animal existence, we perceive the number 
and acuteness of the senses to diminish; we find some 
beings with but four senses, some with three, others with 
two ; and lastly, in the Zoophites, we find only the sense 
of touch, and that so faintly exhibited, as almost to lead 
us to doubt its existence. 

The branches of zoology which may be pursued most 
easily and most agreeably by females are concliology and 
entomology. Concliology presents to the eye of taste 
many splendid and curious objects. Fashion with her 
potent wand seems to have ordered shells a place in 
the saloon and boudoir, and it now remains for science 
to make her claim to the right of arranging them accord- 
ing to her own methodical and philosophical rules. 

' To procure shells in their native situation is by no 
means difficult; they may be picked up in ledges, and 
on banks; drawn out of ponds and rivers, along with 
weeds ; collected on the sea shore, or among rocks ; or 
they may be found among the refuse, in fisherman's 
nets. To obtain an extensive collection in this way, 
would, however, require much time and travelling, or 
the kind aid of many friends : enough, however, to illus- 
18 



206 ZOOLOGY. 

trate the classes, orders, and many of the families, may 
be thus easily assembled, and afford much practical 
instruction. We recommend such a commencement 
before recourse be had to the more usual mode of 
obtaining a collection ; namely, that of purchase. If 
the latter means be resorted to, the buyer should be 
satisfied that each shell is perfect and full grown, and, 
if only one of the kind be selected, well colored, and as 
much in its natural state as a freedom from foreign 
matters will permit : all degrees of artificial polish, or 
form, should be considered as blemishes; except in 
articles of ornament. The size should be suited, a3 
nearly as possible, to that of the purchaser's cabinet. 
It will be found of advantage to the student, to endea- 
vor to fill up her series of families, or genera, before she 
is anxious about particular species ; unless she would 
confine her collection to some one tribe, which, after 
she has obtained a little general information, is a good 
practice. A collection is best kept in small trays, in 
shallow drawers of equal depth ; and such specimens as 
are too large for the drawers, will form a handsome 
article of furniture arranged in a glass case. Our rea- 
son for recommending drawers of an equal depth, is, 
that a systematic arrangement may be followed which 
would add greatly to the value of any collection, and 
would be entirely destroyed by having regard to every 
variation of size. No other care will be requisite, than 
to exclude the dust, or occasionally wash the specimens 
tenderly with soap and water.' * 

Entomology is an interesting branch of Natural 
History. There is a difficulty in the pursuit of this, 
which does not exist in the study of shells, since in the 
latter case, in obtaining specimens, we do not usually 
need to destroy animal life; the inhabitant of the shell 
being in most cases decayed, before its covering passes 
into our hands. It is the tenement, and not the organ- 
ized being which is the object of our classification. 
But in the examination of insects we cannot but expe- 
rience uneasiness at the idea of causing pain, even to a 
poor beetle — and then the giddy butterfly so joyous and 

* Young Lady's Book. 



ZOOLOGY. 207 

sportive, we cannot but feel some regret to abridge its 
ephemeral existence, and to know that its beauty has 
accelerated its doom — emblem but too apt of many 
an unfortunate of our own sex ! And yet, waiving the 
consideration of suffering, which may be, in a degree, 
imaginary, since there are various ways in which insects 
may be deprived of life without pain, there is much to 
interest the mind in the study of Entomology, — much to 
awaken new admiration, for the works of Nature, and to 
show forth the wonderful power and wisdom of the great 
Creator. The least insect, considered as the workman- 
ship of God, becomes to us a curious manifestation of 
his skill. We find insects like all other organized beings 
arranged by nature into genera, as in the butterfly, 
papilio ; the bee, apis ; the fly, musca, &>c. Orders and 
classes are a less natural division formed by men of 
science for the purpose of more convenient reference 
and arrangement. 

The study of zoology will naturally lead you to think 
more of the structure of your own frame ; and how- 
ever startling the idea may be, I cannot but consider 
some knowledge of the human anatomy as desirable for 
females. You will pardon me if I here allude to the 
utility of this knowledge as exemplified in the case of 
my own mother, in whose recent loss I have had the kind 
sympathy of many an affectionate heart among my pupils. 

She early acquired a habit of examining the anatomy 
of such animals as are used for food ; joints of meat, 
fowls, &/C. she dissected with particular attention to the 
form and position of the different bones. Thus she soon 
became an adept at carving, (an art which every mistress 
of a family ought to understand) and, reasoning from 
analogy, formed a tolerably correct idea of the human 
anatomy. In rearing a large family, she often found 
this knowledge of great use. In more than one case, 
where accidents either in her own family and immediate 
neighborhood had caused dislocation of joints, and im- 
mediate surgical aid could not be obtained, she has 
replaced bones, and secured them by proper ligatures. 

You may now shrink from the thought of performing 
such an office ; but in the varied scenes of life many 
trials may be required of your skill, fortitude and 



208 BOTANY. 

strength of nerves, from which sensibility may revolt — 
but which is the truly good and interesting neighbor, 
daughter, wife, or mother, — she who can command her 
own feelings sufficiently to perform painful offices for 
the relief of those she loves, and even for the sake of 
common humanity, or she who, like Niobe, dissolved in 
sentimental grief, commisserates, without attempting to 
relieve? Youth and beauty may now gain for you a 
short-lived admiration, an evanescent love; but the time 
will soon arrive when you will be respected and honored 
only as you are wise and useful. 

Botany. 

The study of Botany is highly calculated to interest 
females, and to enlarge and discipline the mind. This 
idea and the conviction that no popular work existed 
which could lead the pupil step by step from the most 
simple elements to the general principles of the science, 
gave rise to my Familiar Lectures on Botany.* Since 
the publication of that volume, I have had the satisfaction 
of knowing that the science of which it treats has been 
extensively introduced into female seminaries and 
schools, of every grade, from the highest to the lowest 
The mistaken idea that Botany was a dry and difficult 
study, had deterred most females from attempting to 
gain any scientific knowledge of the vegetable king- 
dom. So far however is this from being the case, that 
there is no study in which the leading principles of 
arrangement can be more readily comprehended and 
remembered. Scientific names may not be so easily 
retained in memory, but it is the system, and not the 
names, which is of the most importance. It is however 
far less difficult to remember technical terms than is often 
imagined, especially when these are referred to their 
primitives, and their original signification understood. 

In exhibiting some of the advantages of the study of 

* At the request of many teachers of common school?, the author 
has been induced to commence a smaller work, which may be 
afforded at such a price as will allow of general use, and in a 
style adapted to the capacities of children. This work will soon 
be offered to the public. 



BOTANY. 209 

botany, I shall make use of the Introductory Lecture in 
the work to which I have just referred. 

The universe consists of matter and mind. By the 
faculties of mind with which God has endowed us, we 
are able to examine into the properties of the material 
objects by which we are surrounded. 

If we had no sciences, nature would present exactly 
the same phenomena as at present. The heavenly 
bodies would move with equal regularity, and preserve 
the same relative situations, although no system of 
Astronomy had been formed. The laws of gravity and 
of motion would operate in the same manner as at pres- 
ent, if we had no such science as Natural Philosophy. 
The affinities of substances for each other were the 
same, before the science of Chemistry existed, as they 
are now. It is an important truth, and one which can- 
not be too much impressed upon the mind in all scien- 
tific investigations, that no systems of man can change 
the laws and operations of nature ; though by systems, 
we are enabled to gain a knowledge of these laws and 
relations. 

The Deity has not only placed before us an almost 
infinite variety of objects, but has given to our minds the 
power of reducing them into classes, so as to form beau- 
tiful and regular systems, by which we can comprehend, 
under a few terms, the vast number of individual things, 
which would, otherwise, present to our bewildered minds 
a confused and indiscriminate mass. This power of the 
mind, so important in classification, is that of discover- 
ing resemblances. We perceive two objects, we have an 
idea of their resemblance, and we give a common name 
to both ; other similar objects are then referred to the 
same class, or receive the same name. A child sees a 
flower which he is told is a rose ; he sees anothor resem- 
bling it, and nature teaches him to call that also a rose. 
On this operation of the mind depends the power of 
forming classes, or of generalizing. 

Some relations or resemblances are seen*at the first 
glance ; others are not discovered until after close 
examination and reflection ; but the most perfect classi- 
fication is not always founded upon the most obvious 
resemblances. A person ignorant of botany, on behold- 
18* 



210 BOTAN5T. 

ing the profusion of flowers which adorn the face of na- 
ture, would discover general resemblances, and perhaps 
form in his mind some order of arrangement; but the 
system of botany now in use, neglecting the most con- 
spicuous parts of the flower, is founded upon the obser- 
vation of small parts of it, which a common observer 
might not notice. 

System is necessary in every science. It not only 
assists in the acquisition of knowledge, but enables us to 
retain what is thus acquired; and, by the laws of asso- 
ciation, to call forth what is treasured up in the store- 
house of the mind. System is important not only in the 
grave and elevated departments of science, but is essen- 
tial in the most common concerns and operations of 
ordinary life. In conducting any kind of business, and 
in the arrangement of household concerns, it is indis- 
pensable to the success of the one, and to the comfort of 
those interested in the other. The very logical and sys- 
tematic arrangement which prevails in Botanical science, 
has, without doubt, a tendency to induce in the mind 
the habit and love of order; which, when once estab- 
lished, will operate, even in the minutest concerns. 
Whoever traces this system, through its various connex- 
ions, by a gradual progress from individual plants to 
general classes, until the whole vegetable world seems 
brought into one point of view ; and then descends in 
the same methodical manner, from generals to particu- 
lars, must acquire a habit of arrangement, and a per- 
ception of order, which is the true practical logic. 

The study of botany seems peculiarly adapted to 
females, the objects of its investigation are beautiful and 
delicate ; its pursuits, leading to exercise in the open 
air, are conducive to health and cheerfulness. It is not 
a sedentary study which can be acquired in the library, 
but the objects of the science are scattered over the 
surface of the earth, along the banks of the winding 
brooks, on the borders of precipices, the sides of moun- 
tains, and the depths of the forest. 

A knowledge of botany is necessary to the medical 
profession. Our Almighty Benefactor, in bestowing 
upon us the vegetable tribes, has not only provided a 
source of refined enjoyment in the contemplation of 



BOTANY. £11 

their beautiful forms and colors ; in their fragrance, by 
which, in their peculiar language, they seem to hold 
secret communion with our minds; He has not only 
given them for our food and clothing, but with kind, 
parental care, has, in them, provided powers to counter- 
act and remove the diseases to which mankind are sub- 
ject. For many ages plants were the only medicines 
known, or used; but modern discoveries in chemistry, 
by forming compounds of previously existing elements, 
have, in some degree, superseded their use. Although 
the science of medicine has received much additional 
light from chemistry, it may perhaps in modern days 
have occupied the attention of medical men too exclu- 
sively ; inducing them to toil in their laboratories to 
form those combinations which nature had done, much 
more perfectly, in the plants which they pass unheeded. 
It is probable that the medicinal productions of the 
animal and mineral kingdoms, bear but a small propor- 
tion to those of the vegetable. 

When our forefathers came to this country, they 
found the natives in possession of much medical know- 
ledge of plants. Having no remedies prepared by scien- 
tific skill, the Indians were led, by necessity, to the use 
of those which nature offered them ; and by experience 
and observation, they had arrived at many valuable con- 
clusions as to the qualities of plants. Their mode of 
life, leading them to penetrate the shades of the forest, 
and to climb the mountain precipices, naturally associat- 
ed them much with the vegetable world. The Indian 
woman, the patient sharer in these excursions, was led 
to look for such plants as she might use for the diseases 
of her family. Each new and curious plant, though not 
viewed by her as a botanist would now behold it, doubt- 
less was regarded with scrutinizing attention ; the 
color, taste, and smell, were carefully remarked as indi- 
cations of its properties. But the discoveries and obser- 
vations of the Indians have perished with themselves; 
having no system for the classification or description of 
plants, nor any written language by which such a sys- 
tem might have been conveyed to others, no vestige, but 
uncertain tradition, remains of their knowledge of the 
medicinal qualities of plants. 



212 BOTANY. 

The study of nature in any of her varieties is highly 
interesting and useful. But the heavenly bodies are 
far distant from us, and were they within our reach, are 
too mighty for us to grasp : our feeble minds seem over- 
whelmed in the contemplation of their immensity. 

Animals, though affording the most striking marks of 
designing wisdom, cannot be dissected and examined 
without painful emotions. 

The vegetable world offers a boundless field of inquiry, 
which may be explored with the most pure and delight- 
ful emotions. Here the Almighty seems to manifest 
himself to us with less of that dazzling sublimity which 
it is almost painful to behold in His more magnificent 
creations; and it might almost appear, that accomodat- 
ing the vegetable world to our capacities, He had espe- 
cially designed it for our investigation and amusement. 

The study of Botany naturally leads to greater love 
and reverence for the Deity. We would not affirm that 
it does in reality always produce this effect ; for, unhap- 
pily, there are some minds which, though quick to per- 
ceive the beauties of nature, seem, blindly, to overlook 
Him who spread them forth. They can admire the 
gifts, while they forget the Giver. But those who feel 
in their hearts a love to God, and who see in the natural 
world the workings of His power, can look abroad, and, 
adopting the language of a Christian poet, exclaim, 

' My Father made them all.' 

In following the course laid down in the botanical text- 
book now used in the Seminary, the pupil is first intro- 
duced to the analytical part of botany ; she is presented 
with flowers of the first ten classes, and having learned 
to distinguish them scientifically, is then introduced to 
those which are more complex in their relations, until 
the representatives of the twenty-one classes of vege- 
tables are all brought under review. 

After having learned to assign plants to their appro- 
priate classes, the pupil is taught the relations of each 
part of a vegetable to the whole organized being, the 
external varieties of roots, stems, leaves, corollas, &c, 
with their physiological uses. In the third part of the 



MINERALOGY. 213 

Lectures on Botany, the pupil is taught the various sys- 
tems which have at different times been introduced by 
men of science, with the rules of classification and 
arrangement which have been deduced from the nature 
of the mind, and of the objects to be classed; and made 
more minutely acquainted with the system of Linnaeus, 
and of the natural history of individual plants. 

Lastly is given a general view of the vegetable world, 
as respects geographical situation, and their successive 
changes during the year, their habits, food, diseases, 
&-c, with observations upon the relations which the 
vegetable world, bears to the other kingdoms of nature. 

For a sketch of the history of botanical science, I 
must refer you to some of the last lectures in the work, 
whose outlines I have now laid before you. Before 
leaving this subject, 1 must again repeat what has so 
often been urged upon you, that botany is a practical 
science; that during the season of flowers, you should 
diligently collect specimens of every new species that 
appears. The technical descriptions in the latter part 
of your text book, will not be found sufficiently compre- 
hensive fcr those who pursue the science thoroughly. To 
such, the manual of Professor Eaton, or some other mere* 
ly descriptive work, will be necessary.* 



LECTURE XVIII. 

Mineralogy and Geology. 

1 Lo ! Vanity, with dazzling gems adorned, 

Flaunts proudly by : 
"While Science pores upon a specimen 
Rough from the bosom of its native mine.' 

The science of Mineralogy has not yet received from 
our sex that attention which it deserves, or which it is 

* The science of botany, it will be seen, is more briefly treated 
of in these lectures than most other branches of education ; this 



214 MINERALOGY. 

undoubtedly destined to command. We do not expect, 
or wish to see you devoting that time to this study 
which may be needed for other pursuits ; but a very 
little attention to the subject, especially after you have 
become acquainted with chemistry, will enable you to 
comprehend the general features of the science, and will 
render cabinets of minerals something more to you than 
collections of glittering stones. Let us suppose (a very 
common case) a coterie of fine ladies visiting a scientific 
collection, and while the learned professor or proprietor is 
politely explaining to them the properties and peculiari- 
ties of the substances, or the mode of arrangement 
which he has adopted, they are evidently paying no 
attention to all this, but exclaiming to each other ' how 
sweet this is,' ' how splendid,' ' what beautiful ornaments 
that would make,' — or perhaps lounging away the time, 
with entire indifference as to the objects which they had 
professedly come to examine. Now all that I plead for, 
is, that you may have enough of science to lead you to 
wish for more ; enough to render you interesting com- 
panions to men of science. They will not generally ex- 
pect more of you, than that you should be attentive 
listeners, or be able to suggest subjects for their explana- 
tion. Yet should you chance to become sufficiently 
acquainted with any branch of science to enable you to 
impart information, I know of no law, either of morality 
or propriety, which would be violated by your modestly 
imparting that knowledge to others ; neither do I think 
any man of real science would be displeased to find a 
lady capable of supporting conversation on scientific 
subjects. 

I shall now, as briefly as possible, give you some of the 

is owing to the peculiar nature of the study, which, in order to 
be understood, should be illustrated either by drawings or natural 
flowers. A mere outline of botan} r can be of little use to those 
who are unacquainted with the science : to those who have a 
practical knowledge of it, compendiums are neither very inte- 
resting or useful. Like the objects of the study, botany needs to 
be seen as a whole, in order to show its beauty and utility. Those 
who only look at the Greek names of classes and orders, not un- 
frequently acquire a prejudice against the science, which one ju- 
dicious lecture from a practical botanist might remove. 



MINERALOGY. 215 

leading traits in the science of mineralogy, with its sub- 
ordinate branch, geology. 

Minerals are inorganized bodies, possessing neither 
life, nor the power of voluntary motion. Mineralogy 
teaches the properties and relations of minerals, and the 
method of describing and arranging them : it compre- 
hends not only the study of solid bodies, such as earths 
and metals, but gasses and liquids — of all matter that is 
not either animal or vegetable. 

Minerals are homogeneous, (simple) or heterogeneous 
(compound). Simple minerals are so called, not in refer- 
ence to the elements which compose them, for in this 
view few are simple ; but as they appear to the eye to 
consist of one uniform mass. The simple minerals only 
are the subjects with which mineralogy is concerned. 
Thus lime is simple in its structure, though chemically 
considered, it consists of carbonic acid and lime. 

Compound Minerals present to the eye an aggregation 
of different substances; as granite, which is composed of 
.quartz, mica, and feldspar. The compound minerals 
usually exist in large masses ; as rocks, and mountains : 
the study of these constitute geology. Some knowledge 
of the simple minerals is necessary before commencing 
geological studies. ' The distinctions which exist be- 
tween different rocks must depend on the nature of the 
simple minerals which enter into their compositions, or 
on the mode of aggregation, and the diversity of aspect, 
exhibited by compound minerals, even when bearing 
the same name, is so great, as to render it necessary 
very critically to examine the simple minerals of which 
they are composed. 5 * 

We perceive then the intimate relation between min- 
eralogy and geology. Mineralogy has also a very 
intimate connexion with chemistry. A mineralogist 
may examine ail the external characters of a min- 
eral, hardness, color, fracture, lustre, specific gravity, 
&,c, and according to circumstances, give it a name 
and place in his classification ; but, in order to know 
its constituent elements, its degree of fusibility, the 

* Cleaveland's Mineralogy. 



216 MINERALOGY. 

manner in which it is affected by acids and other sub- 
stances, chemistry must afford its aid. Berzelius, a 
celebrated Swedish mineralogist, remarks that each 
science, in order to be perfect should contain with- 
in itself all that is necessary to its full developement, 
and yet so far from this, at the present day there is a 
connexion more or less intimate between all the branches 
of human knowledge, so that they may be considered as 
forming one Universal science, the knowledge of any one 
branch, throwing light upon all the others. 

One of the most curious and interesting branches of 
Mineralogy, is the study of crystals, or as it is termed 
crystallography. The very singular and mysterious 
agency which operates in the atoms of different substan- 
ces, producing in each its determinate form, as of cube, 
prism, rhomboid, &c, is no less wonderful than the 
phenomenon of the vital principle in organized beings. 

The mode of obtaining crystals of alum, blue vitnol, 
&/C, for baskets and other ornamental work, is familiar 
to many ladies : they know that the mineral must first 
be dissolved in water, and the solution slowly evaporated, 
that the particles of alum or other substance separating 
from the water, will unite and form little crystals which 
float on the surface, until their weight, increased by the 
accretion of new particles, causes them to fall through 
the liquid. 

Alum (sulphate of alumitc and potash) forms crys- 
tals of eight sides, or octahedrons. 

Blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) forms prismatic crys- 
tals of four, six, or more sides. 

Common salt (chloride of sodium, or muriate of 
soda) crystallizes in cubes. The crystalization may be 
disturbed, so as not to present the primitive form of the 
crystals ; but it is ascertained that every mineral has a 
tendency to its peculiar form of crystalization. The 
ultimate atom of the mineral is supposed to be of the 
same figure as the primitive form of its crystal. 

The term crystal is from the Greek hrustallos, which 
signifies ice. The ancients believed that crystallized 
quartz, or rock crystal, was water congealed by extreme 
cold. Mineralogists were for some time divided as to the 



MINERALOGY. 217 

proper methods of classing the substances which were 
objects of their investigation. While some contended 
that the species of minerals, should be formed wholly 
upon their external characters ; others as strongly insist- 
ed upon an arrangement founded wholly on chemical 
principles, or the constituent elements of the minerals. 
The wiser course has of late been allowed of permitting 
mineralogy to receive the light which chemistry is able to 
throw upon it, without relinquishing any advantage 
which it may otherwise possess. 

In arranging a cabinet of minerals, it is necessary 
to fix on some method of classification, as a guide.* 
Cleaveland makes four classes of minerals ; 1st, substan- 
ces not metallic, composed entirely, or in part, of an acid. 
This class, he divides into four orders; these he divides 
into genera, and these again into species. 

The 2d class is Earthy Compounds, or Stones. 
The 3rf class is Combustibles. 
The 4th class is Ores. 

If you have but few substances at first, and commence 
arranging these scientifically, your interest in the subject 
will increase, and your collection will no doubt receive 
additions from various quarters. Every walk and every 
journey, may present you with something for your cabi- 
net, and a new interest will thus be given to the face of 
nature. I should here observe, that you must not expect 
to be able, without assistance, to ascertain the name of a 
mineral, as easily as you find by botanical analysis the 
name of a plant. In mineralogy, you must at first depend 
chiefly on the opinions of those who have a practical 
knowledge of the science; that is, you will need at first to 
have a. practical mineralogist label your specimens, except 
in the case of such common substances as you already 
know by their popular names. After having seen and 
handled a mineral, and placed it in its proper siluation 
in your cabinet, you will seldom forget its appearance 
and name ; you will, by attention, acquire an astonishing 

* Cleaveland's Mineralogy is perhaps more generally followed 
than any other in this country. Emmons's is a less expensive 
work, and very clear and concise. 
19 



218 GEOLOGY. 

quickness and facility in distinguishing specimens ; and 
names which at first seemed hard and difficult to be 
remembered, will become as familiar as the words chair, 
table, &c. 

We will suppose you have a specimen of the anthra- 
cite coal, called Lehigh, Schuylkill, &lc. according to the 
name of the river near which it is obtained. You wish 
to know where to place this mineral in your collection, 
and to ascertain its character. In the first place, you 
must consider in which class it is placed. The third class 
(in Cleaveland's work) contains combustibles; this sub- 
stance being a combustible, you will perceive must be 
in the third class of minerals ; where you will find the 
species hydrogen gas, sulphur, bitumen, amber, and dia- 
mond which burns brilliantly in oxygen gas ; and next to 
diamond, you find anthracite, which is the sixth species 
in the class. You are then directed to the page which 
contains a minute description of the substance in ques- 
tion, with its varieties, localities, and uses. 

In this way, you may proceed with any other mineral, 
whose common name is known to you ; but without much 
practical knowledge, you will not acquire sufficient accu- 
racy in chemical analyses, or in ascertaining the specific 
gravity, and some other external characters of minerals, 
to be able to learn, by your own investigations, the names 
of such minerals as are unknown to you. 

Geology. 

To females, geology is chiefly important, by its effect 
in enlarging their sphere of thought, rendering them 
more interesting as companions to men of science, and 
better capable of instructing the young. Especially does 
geology afford important aid to religion by confirming the 
truth of revelation. Infidels are confounded by the un- 
deniable truth, that as the structure of the earth is investi- 
gated, and the secrets of its interior brought to light, the 
strictest coincidence is observed between them, and the 
facts recorded in Scripture. ' I believe,' says Professor 
Silliman, ' the period is not far distant, when geology 
will be admitted into the train of her elder sister, astron- 



GEOLOGY. 219 

omy, and that both will be eventually hailed as the friends 
and allies of revealed religion.' 

The physical history of the Deluge is everywhere in- 
scribed upon the surface of the earth; upon its chasms 
and cliffs, its valleys and mountains. For a knowledge 
of the moral cause of these convulsions, we must look to 
the Scriptures ; we there find that c God seeing the wick- 
edness of man was great on the earth, that every imagi- 
nation of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continue 
ally, and that the earth was filled with violence, resolved 
to destroy man by a flood of waters.' We find that ' the 
waters prevailed upon the earth an hundred and fifty 
days, and that all the hills under the whole heaven were 
covered.' 

This one grand proof of the Scriptures, offered by geo- 
logical science, is enough to entitle it to the attention of 
the Christian, for it furnishes sensible demonstration, 
broad and stable as the earth, of the truth of that book, 
which traces man from his creation and first planting 
upon this globe, and carries him into eternity, raising 
the curtain between him and the invisible world of spir- 
its. Were it not for this book, we should have no knowl- 
edge but that afforded by the dim and uncertain light of 
nature, that our souls were immortal, and that man dieth 
not like ' the beasts that perish.' Geology leads us to 
view the globe upon a great scale, to meditate upon the 
bold and romantic scenes of nature, to survey mountains 
and valleys, as sunk or raised by great convulsions of the 
earth, to trace the hand of time in shattering and crumb- 
ling the hardest rocks; to mark the little brook and the 
majestic river, alike bearing in their course the sands 
thus formed, and depositing them upon their banks, or at 
their mouths, thus forming new land in the dominions of 
water; and again, to see lands in their turn inundated, 
and overflowed. 

To one acquainted with geological facts, and interest- 
ed in the science, even the barren rock, the bleak moun- 
tain, and the gloomy mine, are objects of attention. An- 
cient buildings and venerable ruins are interesting, both 
as triumphs of the art of man, and memorials of the de- 
£ay of his labor, but mountains and precipices are the 



220 GEOLOGY. 

workmanship of Almighty hands. Volcanoes and earth- 
quakes are overwhelming manifestations of His power. 
In beholding these phenomena, we feel indeed that ' the 
Lord reigneth, and is clothed with majesty.' 

We shall not attempt to give a view of all the impor- 
tant principles of geology, but present you with a very 
general sketch of the science, hoping it may not be unin- 
teresting to those who already possess some knowledge 
of the subject, and may induce others to devote some at- 
tention to this interesting branch of natural science. 

The elementary substances which form the solid mat- 
ter of the globe, are, 1st, Earths; 2d, Metals; 3d, Inflam- 
mable Principles ; and 4th, Alkalies. 

The Earths are Silez. 

Alumine. 

Lime. 

Magnesia. 
Principal Metals. Iron. 

Manganese. 
Inflammable Principles. Sulphur. 

Carbon. 
Alkalies. Potash. 

Soda. 

These are the elementary substances which enter into 
the composition of the principal masses of minerals found 
upon the surface of the globe, and in the interior as far 
as man has yet penetrated; gold, silver, diamond and 
other rare minerals are found in smaller masses, and in 
veins constituting but one part in twenty of the solid parts 
of the globe. 

Earths. 

Silex, or Siliceous earth, exists nearly pure in flint and 
quartz ; it produces a great degree of hardness in all 
stones, of which it forms a part. Silex forms a part of 
almost all rocks and stones. Alumine (Argilla) or pure 
clay, is seldom found, although it is very common in a 
mixed state ; it is soft and smooth to the touch. Rocks 
which contain a considerable proportion of alumine are 
termed argillaceous. Lime (Calx.) This earth combined 
with an acid called carbonic, forms limestone, marble 
and chalk, (carbonates of lime) distinguished from each 
other by different degrees of hardness. Lime united 



GEOLOGY. 221 

with sulphuric acid, forms a stone called gypsum, (sul- 
phate of lime) which is softer than limestone, and does 
not, like that, effervesce with acids. Lime, mixed with 
common clay, forms marl. 

Magnesia is seldom found pure in nature; it forms an 
ingredient in some rocks, to which it communicates a 
smoothness, a striped texture, and sometimes a greenish 
color. 

Metals. 

Iron forms a part of many rocks and stones, giving 
them a variety of coloring, and increasing their weight. 
Manganese communicates to rocks a dull reddish color, 
inclining to purple, and a dry and burnt-like appearance. 

Inflammable Substances. 

Sulphur is found in large masses, combined with oxy- 
gen, forming sulphuric acid ; it unites with lime, and forms 
gypsum, or plaster of Paris. 

Carbon, or Charcoal, is a constituent of many slate 
rocks, giving them a dark color ; it is the principal con- 
stituent of that kind of coal which is found in beds. Car- 
bon combined with oxygen, forming carbonic acid, is 
combined with all limestone rocks. 

Alkalies. 

Potash and Soda. These alkalies do not exist in rocks 
to a great degree, but soda forms an important constituent 
of the water of the ocean and rock salts. 

Besides the elementary substances above enumerated, 
we will mention muriatic acid, which, combined with 
soda, forms salt; and phosphoric acid, which, combined 
with lime, is a principal constituent of animal bones ; the 
latter acid is found in some limestone beds, but rarely 
occurs in the mineral kingdom. 

The few elementary substances which we have now 
described, form, either separately, or combined, all the 
simple minerals which compose rocks. 

You will find it difficult, without some knowledge of 
ehemistry, to understand in what manner these elemen- 
tary substances combine with others, forming a great 
19* 



22*2 GEOLOGY. 

variety of minerals, or rather you may be surprised that 
when closely combined, they can be separated from the 
materials with which they are united. The examination 
of the elementary bodies, Earths, Metals, Inflammable 
Principles, and Alkalies, properly belongs to the depart- 
ment of Chemistry ; and the study of simple minerals, 
belongs to the science of Mineralogy. 

It is difficult to procure pure specimens of all the ele- 
mentary principles, but the simple minerals are very 
common, and should be procured in the commencement 
of geological studies. The most important simple mine- 
rals, which enter into the formation of rocks, are as (ol- 
io ws : 

Quartz. Hornblende. 

Felspar. Limestone. 

Mica. Gypsum. 

Talc. Slate, or Argillite. 

Chlorite. 

These minerals are termed the alphabet of geology, 
and you could no more learn to read words, without a 
knowledge of the letters which form them, than you could 
learn to distinguish the different rocks, without a knowl- 
edge of the simple minerals of which they are composed. 
We will now examine the most striking characteristics of 
these minerals. 

1. Quartz. This is the hardest mineral of which rocks 
are composed ; it strikes fire when struck with steel ; it 
is commonly white, though sometimes red, brown, or yel- 
lowish, and sometimes transparent. It is composed of 
silex, with a small portion of alumine. It is infusible, or 
cannot be melted when unmixed ; but with soda or any 
other alkali, it melts easily and forms glass. Quartz ex- 
ists in veins, and sometimes in large beds ; even whole 
mountains are found composed of this mineral, in grains 
united without any cement, called granular quartz. 
Combined with alumine and iron, quartz forms jasper. 

2. Felspar is less hard than quartz, is more brittle, 
and possesses a shining lustre. It is of various colors, 
white, yellowish, green, and flesh-colored. Felspar con- 
tains more of alumine and less of silex than quartz, with 
13 parts in a hundred, of potash. 



GEOLOGY. 223 

3. Mica consists of very thin glittering leaves, (lamina) 
which may be easily separated with a kniie. Mica is of 
different colors, white, black, and sometimes yellow, like 
gold ; for which it has been mistaken by those who only 
judge of minerals by a superficial observation. 

4. Talc. This is similar in many respects to mica; the 
plates are not like mica, elastic ; it is usually of a green 
color, sometimes of a silvery white ; it feels smooth like 
soap, to the touch. 

5. Chlorite, (derived from a Greek word, chloros, sig- 
nifying green) is of a green color, and often passes by 
insensible gradations into talc ; it contains less of silex 
than is found in either mica or talc, but more of magne- 
sia and the oxide of iron, to which its owes its color. 

6. Hornblende is of a blackish, or dark green color, 
heavier than quartz or felspar, but not so hard, when 
scratched with a sharp pointed instrument ; the streak is 
a light green ; this mineral is sometimes found in large 
masses, forming entire mountains, but more frequeniy it 
is found as a part of compound rocks, called trap rocks, 
the origin of which has, among geologists, given rise to 
various opinions. Hornblende contains more of the 
oxide of iron, than any of the simple minerals; for this 
reason, it is more deeply colored. % 

A very common mineral called serpentine, from its spot- 
ted color, resembling the serpent's skin, is formed by a 
combination of hornblende with talc, or chlorite, often 
passing by insensible gradations into one or the other of 
these minerals. 

7. Limestone, or Carbonate of Lime, when pure, is 
composed of lime and carbonic acid, in the proportions 
of fifty-seven parts lime, and forty-three carbonic acid; but 
the limestone is often combined with magnesia, alumine, 
silex, or iron. All limestones may be scraped with a 
knife ; they effervesce when acids are applied to their 
surface : this latter property is an important test of the 
presence of lime in rocks. There are a great many varie- 
ties of limestone rocks, from the hardest marble to chalk. 
Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is of a whitish color ; it is 
much softer than carbonate of lime ; it is found in beds, 
but not constituting rocks and mountains, like limestone. 



224 GEOLOGY. 

It is, as its chemical name, sulphate of lime, would de- 
note, a compound of lime and sulphuric acid. It is also 
called plaster-stone, and, from the place where it was first 
discovered, plaster of Paris. 

8 Slate, or Argillitc, (in German called schistus) is 
of a bluish or gray color, with a silky lustre ; the struc- 
ture is such, that in general it admits of being split into 
thin plates, as in the slate which is used for the roofs of 
houses, and in writing slates. By being united with a 
greater poition of carbon, it passes into a soft, dark, slaty 
bed, called shale. 

We have now enumerated the elementary principles 
which enter into the composition of minerals, and con- 
sidered the simple minerals, which, either separately 
or combined, form rocks and mountains. In order 
to know minerals, specimens must be examined, and 
carefully compared with descriptions ; so that you can, 
without any difficulty, distinguish a piece of quartz, or 
mica, or any of the other simple minerals, and can also 
recognize them when you find them in a state of combi- 
nation with others. This then will be the first stage in 
your geological study to know the elementary principles, 
and the simple minerals ; and to procure specimens of 
the latter, your first step towards collecting a geological 
cabinet. You will of course understand, that each speci- 
men is to be labelled and arranged in the order in which 
these have been described. 

We will now explain to you, how the simple minerals 
just examined are combined to form the compounds 
which constitute rocks and mountains. You must, howev- 
er, recollect that in many cases, these simple minerals 
themselves are found in large masses ; rocks and even 
mountains of quartz are known to exist ; limestone under 
various forms, often that of pure carbonate, is said to 
constitute about one-eighth of the known substance of 
the earth. Slate, or argillite, in nearly a simple state, 
forms rocks and mountains ; but there are compound 
rocks to be considered, which in the structure of the 
earth are of far greater importance, than the simple 
minerals. 



GEOLOGY. 225 

Compound Rocks. 

Granite. Here is a piece of a rock, called granite; 
you will perceive three distinct substances, which you 
will recognize to he quartz, mica, and felspar: the 
quartz is white, and has a crystalline appearance; it 
seems to consist of irregular grains, or, according to the 
geological term, it is granular* The mica is distin- 
guished by its shining black scales, which you can easily 
divide by the point of a penknife. The felspar is here 
flesh-colored ; it seems to consist of finer particles than 
the quartz, resembling the rough edge of procelain 
ware. 

You must not, however, expect td find exactly the 
same appearances in every specimen of granite ; some- 
times the quartz is gray, or smoky, the mica varying in 
color through various gradations, from a silvery white to 
black, and the felspar is often of a snowy whiteness. 
Granite also varies in its constituent parts. We some- 
times find talc in the place of mica, forming Talcy 
granite, chlorite forming Chlontic Granite, and horn- 
blend, forming Sienite.^ 

Gneiss. This name was given to the rock we are now 
to examine, by German miners; it resembles granite, in 
being composed of the same materials, but with less 
felspar and quartz, and these in grains finer and less 
distinct than in granite. The mica is often arranged 
in thin leaves,! or layers ; the perfect gneiss rocks may 
be split in the direction of the leaves of mica. 

Although between a perfect specimen of gneiss and 
one of granite, we might perceive a marked difference, 
yet when the granite appears in fine grains with more 
of mica and less of felspar, it passes into gneiss, and it 
is by no means easy to ascertain the exact point where 
the one passes into the other. 

Mica Slate is composed chiefly of quartz and mica, 
the latter being most abundant, often reflecting the rays 

* This is said lo have given rise to the name Granite. 

t So named from Sienna, in Egypt? where this rock was an- 
ciently used for monuments. 

$ This kind of structure is called foliated, from the Latin word 
folium, a leaf. 



226 GEOLOGY. 

of light with much brilliancy. This rock is more slaty 
than gneiss: the layers of mica are sometimes contorted 
or bent out of a straight course. Mica slate sometimes 
varies into gneiss and granite, though in its perfect state 
its character may be easily recognized. 

The three rocks which we have now examined, viz. 
granite, geniss, and mica slate, are, as \ou see, all com- 
posed of similar ingredients, but in different proportions 
and differently arranged ; they form a great portion of 
the principal mountain ranges upon the face of the 
globe. 

Having now instructed you in such preliminary know- 
ledge as seemed necessary to enable you to comprehend 
the general principles of the science, I shall now offer 
the following outline of geology. 

Geology is the science which exhibits the structure of 
the globe, and the materials of which it is composed, as 
far as they have been revealed to human observation. 
It is supposed by most geologists that the materials of 
the earth were once in a fluid stale, and that the heaviest 
minerals took the lowest place. It appears evident that 
the earth very gradually became fitted for the habitation 
of men and animals. The six days of the Creation, 
spoken of in the first of Genesis, are supposed to have 
been six periods of time, of a length which must have 
comprehended many ages. That the day spoken of in 
Scripture was neither a period of twenty-four hours or 
from sun-rise to sun-set, is manifest not only from geo- 
logical observation, but from the language of the bible. 
After enumerating the various days or periods of the 
creation, the sacred historian speaking of them all under 
one general head says, ' In the day in which God made 
the world,' &c. It is also said in scripture that 'with 
the Lord a thousand years are as one day, and one day 
as a thousand years. 5 

Without attempting to go minutely into the subject of 
the earth's formation as explained and taught by mod- 
ern geology, I shall merely notice a few of its most 
prominent facts and principles. 



GEOLOGY. 227 

It is found to be a fact that there is a class of rocks, 
the materials of which are heavier and more compact 
than any other, and which never contain any remains 
of animals or vegetables ; they evidently appear to have 
lain below all the rock formations which have been dis- 
covered. These are called primitive rocks, being, as 
it is supposed, the first formed. They are the follow- 
ing: 

First Class of Rocks. 

Granite, Granular Quartz, 

Gneiss, Granular Lime Rock, 

Mica Slate, Sparry Lime Rock, 

Hornblende Rock, Primitive Argillite. 
Talcose Rock, 

Granite, as has been remarked, is composed of quartz, 
felspar, and mica; it is found in vast quantities in many 
countries; it constitutes a large portion of many of the 
highest mountains; it forms a siliceous soil, not favor- 
able to vegetation, and makes a beautiful and durable 
building stone. 

Geneiss. This rock is composed of the same mate- 
rials as granite, viz. quartz, felspar, and mica; but the 
mica is arranged in parallel layers. 

Mica Slate is composed chiefly of quartz and mica ; 
the mica usually predominates. It disintegrates more 
rapidly than granite or gneiss. 

Hornblende Rock consists of hornblende and felspar; 
when the felspar is in disseminated masses, it is called 
Sienite. The predominant color of the rock is green, 
sometimes inclining to brown. The sienite variety is 
susceptible of a high polish, and forms beautiful pieces 
for ornaments. 

Talcose Rock, is an aggregate of talc and fine grains 
of quartz, aid generally some mica. It is a slaty rock, 
and of a silver-gray color. 

Granular Quartz is made up of grains of quartz, 
without any appearance of cement : when white, its sand 
is used in making glass. 

Granular Lime Rock is made [up of grains hav- 
ing a crystalline appearance : it receives a high polish, 



228 GEOLOGY. 

and is much used for monuments, pillars, and in build- 
ing. 

Sparry JAmc Rock is made up of fine grains of car- 
bonate of lime : it resembles Nova Scotia plaster. From 
this stratum, nitrogen gas, in vast quantities, is supposed 
to issue. 

Primitive Argillite is a homogeneous rock, of a slaty 
structure. It is used for roofing buildings. 

A long period must have been required to bring the 
materials of these primitive rocks into the compact and 
hardened state in which we now find them ; for although 
the Deity could, in an instant, have changed the most 
subtle gasses into rocks and stones, we have no reason 
to believe that he did not operate by second causes as 
much in the formation of the world as he has since done. 
Chemical and mechanical agencies undoubtedly were 
brought into action to produce the intended effects: the 
dry land at length appeared, the waters being gathered 
together into oceans, seas, lakes and rivers. 

After the first crust was formed around the earth, it 
is supposed that some great convulsion in the interior, 
either by means of volcanic fires, or the sudden percus- 
sion of internal gasses producing earthquakes, burst 
asunder this outer coat, and shattered into fragments, or 
broke into larger masses, the rocks of which it was com- 
posed. 

At the breaking up of the rocky pavement of the 
globe, and crumbling of primitive rocks, of wlich this 
pavement was composed, a new formation was made of the 
fragments of the other rocks, united together by a kind 
of cement. This induces the opinion that volcanic fires 
were agents in producing the great commotion which 
tore up the foundations of the earth. Fire would of 
course melt or fuse, in a degree sufficient to form the 
cement ; for instance, where granite was thrown by the 
side of limestone, the silex of the one in contact with the 
alkali of the other would form a substance like glass, 
which you know is produced by the melting of sand and 
alkali together. 

This second class of rocks are called transition 
rocks, because they are supposed to have been formed 



GEOLOGY. 229 

at the changing or transition of the world from an unin- 
habited to a habitable state. 

The rocks belonging to this class are, 

Transition Argillite, Graywacke, and 

Calciferous Sand Rock, Old Red Sand Stone. 

Metalliferous Lime Rock, 

Transition Argillite is a soft, homogeneous rock, 
mostly of a bluish or dark color. It composes the rocks 
of the Cohoes Falls.* There seems to be very little dif- 
ference between this and the Primitive Argillite, and it 
is thought proper, by some geologists, to include them 
all in one class. 

Calciferous Sand Rock is composed of grains of quartz 
and carbonate of lime. 

Metalliferous Lime Rock is of a gray or slate color. 
It derives its name from being often found to contain 
silver and other metals. 

Grayioackc is an aggregate of sand cemented by clay ; 
it often contains scales of talc and mica. The color is 
usually gray. This rock constitutes most of the Cat- 
skill and Alleghany Mountains. 

Old Red Sand Stone is an aggregate of angular 
grains of quartzose sand, held together by a ferrugin- 
eous argillaceous cement. It forms a loose, red soil : it 
is valuable for building : when wrought, it is called Free 
Stone. It forms the bank of Connecticut River. 

In the transition formation, we find the fossil remains 
of plants and animals ; the plants are all of that kind, 
called in Botany stiped, that is, having no real stem, but 
a frond like the ferns and palms. These plants differ in 
several particulars from those which have the true stem 
or caulis, and are therefore called cauline plants. The 
seeds of stiped plants never have two cotyledous ; the 
stalks grow from the centre outwardly, and are therefore 
called endogenous ,f while the stems of cauline plants 
grow on the outside, and are called exogenous. 

The fossil animals found in transition rocks are of 

* These falls are on the Mohawk, a little above its mouth. 

f The two words, endogenous and exogenous, are derived from 
the Greek : the first signifies to grow internally, the other to grow 
externally. 

20 



230 GEOLOGY. 

races now extinct. At this second period of the world, a 
strange and appalling state of things existed ; lizard- 
shape animals, extending to monstrous dimensions; the 
mastodum and megatherium of enormous bulk, and vari- 
ous other huge and singular animals had possession of 
the earth, and rolled their vast magnitudes over ferns and 
palms of a size corresponding to their own. 

In the mean time a new set of rocks were gradually 
formed from the ruins of both primitive and transition; 
these were called secondary rocks : other plants and ani- 
mals were at this period created. 

These rocks are, 

Mill-stone Grit, Calciferous Slate, 

Saliferous Rock, Geodiferous Lime Rock, 

Gray Band, Cornitiferous Lime Rock, and 

Ferriferous Slate, Pyritiferous Rock. 
Ferriferous Sand Rock, 

Millstone Grit is a coarse, harsh aggregate of sand 
and pebbles ; the color is gray or reddish. It is used for 
mill-stones. 

Saliferous Rock constitutes the floor of all the salt 
springs in the western country. It is used as a building 
stone. 

Gray Band is a hard fine-grained gray rock, so com- 
pact that it may be considered homogeneous. 

Ferriferous Slate is a hard silicious rock, lying over 
iron ore. It often appears in the bed of the Western 
Canal. 

Calciferous Slate. This rock often contains carbonate 
of lime; it embraces beds of plaster and shell limestone; 
it forms, by disintegration, the best of soils. 

Geodiferous Lime Rock. This name is given on ac- 
count of small cavities which it contains, called gcodes. 
This rock is found at Lockport and Niagara Falls. 

Cornitiferous Lime Rock is made up of layers of shell- 
limestone, containing beds of horn-stone: from this cir- 
cumstance, it receives its name — the Latin word cornus, 
signifying a horn. This rock is remarkable for its numer- 
ous caverns. 

Pyritiferous Rock is a calcareous gray rock, abound- 
ing in iron pyrites. 

At length, the earth being made habitable, man is 
formed ; after a series of ages, the fountains of the deep 



GEOLOGY. 231 

arc broken up ; the monsters which stalked over the 
earth, or crawled through its fens and marshes, are sud- 
denly overwhelmed by the deluge which was sent to de- 
stroy the human monsters who did ' evil in the sight of 
God.' Antediluvian remains of animals are found in 
Siberia, India, England, France, and Germany, and in 
various parts of America. 

In considering the ruins of the deluge, we must not 
fall into the error which has been too common, of consid- 
ering all fossil shells, and other organic remains found 
imbedded in rocks, as marks of that event. It appears 
probable, from observations made upon the rock strata, 
that previous to this, the earth had undergone many 
changes ; — fire and water had been active in decomposing 
and crystallizing the mineral substances on the globe, 
and many animals and plants had become petrified and 
fixed in their rocky beds. 

The process of petrification consists in the gradual de- 
cay of the original substance of an organized being, while 
the place of the particles which pass off in a gaseous or 
other form, is supplied by stony particles, until the whole 
mass is thus changed. Some waters containing lime, 
possess the power of petrifaction in a high degree. The 
lime becoming concreted, takes the place of the original 
substance. Shells are often found petrified ; they some- 
times occur in large masses forming rocks, termed shell 
limestone. 

It is not within the scope of these lectures, to enter 
deeply into geological investigations. So many impor- 
tant facts and interesting observations crowd upon us, 
when glancing at this subject, that the longer we dwell 
upon it, the more it seems necessary to say. I must, 
however interesting the theme, hasten to bring to a close 
our remarks on Geology, and with this, our observations 
upon Natural Science in general. 

We have spoken of primitive, transition, and secondary 
rocks ; of the great primitive ocean which, as is supposed, 
once covered the face of the whole earth while it was yet 
1 without form and void.' — We have remarked upon the 
prevalent opinion of the gradual formation of the different 
classes of rocks, the changes which the earth must have 
undergone, previous to the existence of animals or vege- 



232 GEOLOGY. 

tables; and that great and sudden catastrophe which, 
with the exception of Noah and those who were with him, 
buried in one vast, watery grave, the whole race of or- 
ganized beings, including man, and beast, and the vege- 
table tribes. 

Everywhere upon and beneath the surface of the earth, 
are to be found traces of the deluge. — Masses of clay, sand 
and shells, mingled with bones and skeletons of huge ani- 
mals as well as those of a less size, can be accounted for on 
no other supposition, than that they were thus indiscrimi- 
nately thrown together by the rushing of mighty waters. 
Caverns are discovered whose floors are covered with the 
bones of hyenas, wolves, bears, and other beasts of prey, 
who seem to have rushed together into these retreats, to 
avoid the impending destruction. From the appearances 
of the gnawed fragments of bones, it would seem that 
they fell upon, and devoured each other. These remains 
are covered by a light mud, evidently washed over them, 
as the waters of the flood were subsiding. 

The period before the flood is termed antediluvial 
(from ante before, diluvium flood) : thus, those animals 
whose remains are found only in the oldest rooks, are 
called antediluvian relics. The ruins of the flood, the 
land which was then formed, and all appearances which 
seem the result of that event, are called diluvial. The 
various geological changes upon and beneath the sur- 
face of the earth which have taken place since the 
flood, are called post-diluvial. The deposites of soil 
or other changes effected by water, are called by the 
more general term alluvial. 

Besides the three regular classes of rocks, and the va- 
rious kinds of alluvions, there is another formation con- 
sisting of what are called Basaltic or Superincumbent 
rocks. These lie over the other rocks in strata not con- 
formable to them. They are supposed by most geologists 
to be of volcanic origin: they are Amygdaloid, which is 
an aggregate of hornblende particles of a dark gray or 
brown color, and Greenstone trap, which is an aggregate 
of hornblende and felspar. The Giant's Causeway and 
Fingal's Cave in Ireland, and the Palisadoes on the 
Hudson river are composed of Basaltic or trap rocks. 
There are also other remains of Volcanoes, as lava of 



GEOLOGY. 233 

various kinds, either dark colored and almost homogene- 
ous, or of cemented grains, or whitish lava, consisting 
chiefly of melted felspar, and called Trachyte. 

The various layers of clay, sand, and marl, which are 
supposed to have been formed before the deluge, have re- 
ceived the name of the Tertiary formation. The word 
Tertiary, signifying three, is given in consequence of this 
lying over the secondary formation. . 

This formation which is very extensive in France and 
England, has, in those countries, received much attention. 
' The most remarkable discovery,' says Bakewell, ' that 
has been made respecting the tertiary deposites, is, that 
many of them contain the remains of mammiferous* 
quadrupeds, as perfect in their organization as any of the 
existing species of land quadrupeds, but most of them 
belonging to genera or species that are extinct. The 
tertiary strata are further remarkable for presenting the 
frequent alternation of beds containing the remains of 
marine animals, with other beds that contain the bones 
of land animals or fresh water shells. It appears that 
tertiary strata were chiefly formed in detached inland 
seas, or lakes.' 

When commencing the science of geology, a pupil 
may very naturally imagine that to be but a trifling 
study, which directs the attention to a mere stone, such 
as may at any time be seen in the street ; he may be ready 
to say, ' It seems a very little thing, to know that this, a 
piece of rock, is granite, and that granite is composed of 
mica, quartz, and felspar.' If any of you have been led 
to entertain thoughts of a similar kind, I trust you are 
now convinced that it is well to suspend opinions, till 
you have advanced beyond the mere elements of a study. 
You find that geology presents a noble field for research ; 
that it carries the mind from the consideration of rocks 
and mountains, to the period of their creation, and to 
Him who created them : you perceive them to be silent 
and venerable historians, which, in a language that ad- 
mits of no dispute, indicate changes that the globe has 
undergone, many of which, but for these witnesses and 

* Such four-footed animals as nourish their young with milk. 
20* 



234 GEOLOGY. 

partakers, the inhabitants of the earth would have been 
forever ignorant. 

According to the discoveries of geologists, it appears — 
first j that the whole surface of the earth was once 
covered by a void and formless deep. Chemistry proves 
that darkness and light, gasses, liquids, and solids, min- 
gled in one universal chaos, might, according to the 
laws of nature, have disengaged themselves, and formed 
a new arrangement. 

Second, it appears from geology, that the waters were 
gathered into their respective places, and that solids 
were separated from liquids; and gasses released from 
their unnatural union, rose by their specific levity, into 
higher regions. 

Third, we learn from geology, that after the earth 
had become fitted for the support of vegetation, plants 
were created, their remains being found in older rocks 
than those of animals. 

Fourthly, we learn from geology, that after plants were 
created, the ' waters brought forth abundantly, ' the re- 
mains of marine and fresh water animals being found in 
older rocks than those of land animals. 

Fifthly, we find by geology, that at this period land 
animals were created, and that they ' multiplied greatly 
upon the earth.' 

Sixthly, we learn from geology, that after a long period 
of time had elapsed from the creation of plants and ani- 
mals, the whole earth was again covered with water, 
which swallowed up vast multitudes of animals and vege- 
tables, whose remains are daily becoming more and more 
revealed to human observation. We know too that many 
species and even genera of animals which existed pre- 
vious to that catastrophe, are now extinct. We learn by 
geology, from the fact of beds of shells being found upon 
the highest ground at great distances from the sea, that 
the ' waters covered the tops of the highest mountains ;' 
and, from various other circumstances, it appears that they 
gradually subsided. Now, compare these facts as revealed 
by geology, with the events recorded in scripture, between 
the 1st and 10th chapters of Genesis, and you will find 
an entire corroboration of what is there recorded. 



GEOLOGY. 235 

Among all the diluvial and antediluvial relics, no hu- 
man bones have yet been discovered. This, however, is 
a fact which ought not to excite surprise, when wc con- 
sider how little is known of the fossil and other ancient 
remains of Asia, which was the birth-place of the human 
race. At the period of the deluge, mankind had not 
probably extended far over the earth : at the approach of 
this event, they would naturally collect in groups for mu- 
tual assistance and protection, and in this condition prob- 
ably met their fate. Seas may now cover their remains, 
or it may rest for future geologists to discover and bring 
forth the bones of those wretched and miserable beings 
who signally met with retribution, even in this life. 

From what has been observed, you will readily see 
the vast importance of the discoveries of geologists and 
anatomists respecting organic remains; especially when 
taken in connexion with established facts relative to the 
comparative ages of the different strata or layers of rocks. 
If a certain tribe of plants or animals are found imbedded 
in a certain rock formation, while the rocks of more re- 
cent origin are never found to contain such remains, we 
must believe they were of more ancient date than the 
species found in newer rocks. 

' If it had been predicted a century ago, that a volume 
would be discovered, containing the natural history of 
the earliest inhabitants of the globe, which flourished 
and perished before the creation of man, with the dis- 
tinct impressions of the forms of animals no longer exist- 
ing on earth, — what curiosity would have been excited 
to see this wonderful volume ; how anxiously would Phi- 
losophers have waited for the discovery ! But this volume 
is now discovered ; it is the volume of nature, rich with 
the spoils of primeval ages, unfolded to the view of the 
attentive observer in the strata that compose the crust of 
the globe.' * 

This interesting branch of Natural History has hither- 
to been little introduced into female seminaries ; the rea- 
son of this is, undoubtedly, the want of popular, elemen- 
tary treatises on the subject; as this want shall be sup- 
plied, it is to be hoped that a study which so powerfully 

* Bake well. 



236 



MATHEMATICS. 



confirms the truth of revelation, and which so evidently 
tends to elevate and enlarge the mind, will no longer be 
considered unnecessary, or unimportant.* All who study 
nature, must, with the poet Montgomery, feel that 

' There is a voiceless eloquence on earth 
Telling of Him who gave her wonders birth ; ' — 

And all such will be ready to exclaim with him, — 

' And long may I remain the adoring child 

Of Nature's majesty, sublime or wild ; 

Hill, flood and forest, mountain, rock and sea, 

All take these terrors and their charms from Thee. 

From Thee, whose hidden but supreme control, 

Moves through the world, a Universal Soul.' 



LECTURE XIX. 

Mathematics — Arithmetic — Algebra — Geometry. 

In commencing my remarks on the study of Mathe- 
matics as a branch of female education, I shall intro- 
duce a passage from Hannah More's Strictures, which 
will show you the state of our sex as to intellectual 
improvement at the beginning of the present century, 
with the opinions of one deserving of deference and 
respect, as to the proper means by which the existing 
evils might be remedied. ' Women,' says Mrs. More, 
' are little accustomed to close reasoning on any subject * 
still less do they inure their minds to consider par- 
ticular parts of a subject : they are not habituated 
to turn a truth round, and view it in all its varied 
aspects and positions : and this is one cause of the too 
great confidence they are disposed to place in their own 

* Since this lecture was delivered, the author has been engaged 
in making some additions to a small work written by the author of 
the Child's Botany, and entitled the Child's Geology. This will 
soon be given to the public. Should the author of these lec- 
tures be enabled to fulfil her present intentions, a work on Geolo- 
gy, adapted to female seminaries, for which she has six years been 
collecting materials, will be soon prepared for publication. 



MATHEMATICS. 237 

opinions. Though their imagination is already too live- 
ly, and their judgment naturally incorrect; in educating 
them, we go on to stimulate the imagination, while we 
neglect the regulation of the judgment. They already 
want ballast, and we make their education consist in 
continually crowding more sail than they can carry. 
Their intellectual powers being so little strengthened by 
exercise, makes every little business appear a hardship 
to them: whereas serious study would be useful, were it 
only that it leads the mind to the habit of conquering 
difficulties.' 

In another part of her work, Mrs. More says, ' The 
chief end to be proposed in cultivating the understand- 
ing of women is to qualify them for the practical pur- 
poses of life. The great use of study with them is to 
regulate their minds and render them capable of fulfil- 
ling the duties of life. To woman therefore I would recom- 
mend a predominance of sober studies, those which will 
teach her to elicit truth ; will give precision to her ideas ; 
will make an exact mind, which instead of stimulating 
her sensibility, will chasten it; which will give her 
definite notions; will bring her imagination under 
dominion ; will lead her to think, to compare, to metho- 
dize. Economy is the exercise of a sound judgment, 
exerted in the comprehensive outline of order and 
arrangement. She who has the best regulated mind 
will, all other things being equal, have the hest regulat* 
ed family.' 

It had not probably entered into the mind of the excel- 
lent woman whose judicious observations have just been 
quoted, that her sex, in thirty years from the time 
in which she advanced these ideas, would be admitted 
by general consent to share in those pursuits, which 
have the most undoubted tendency to produce the effects 
which she desired — a tendency to sober the imagination, 
develope the reasoning powers, and strengthen the under- 
standing, so apt in the female character to be biassed by 
prejudice or borne on the gossamer wing of a lively fan- 
cy into the regions of error and folly. Mrs. More recom- 
mended the reading of Watts on the Mind, Butler's 
Analogy, and other writings of a grave and metaphysical 



238 MATHEMATICS. 

character ; but she did not, (if indeed she was aware of 
their superior importance as aids to mental discipline) 
dare to speak of the higher branches of mathematics. 

Watts observes that ' Mathematics have a strange influ- 
ence toward fixing the attention of the mind, and giving a 
steadiness to a wandering disposition, because they deal 
much in lines, figures and numbers, which affect and 
please the sense and imagination.' The same writer, in 
speaking of the tendency of the mind to ' narrow and low 
conceptions,' remarks that ' this defect may be remedied 
by beginning with the first principles in geometry, and 
proceeding to the doctrine of quantities, which are 
infinite and innumerable. A little acquaintance with 
true philosophy and mathematical learning, would soon 
teach the mind that there are no limits either to the ex- 
tension of space, or the division of body, and would lead 
it to believe that there are bodies amazingly great or 
small beyond their present imagination.' The same 
writer further observes, ' It is owing to the narrowness of 
our minds, that we are exposed to the same peril in the 
matters of human prudence and duty. In many things 
which we do, we ought not only to consider the mere 
naked action itself, but the persons who act, the persons 
towards whom, the time when, the place where, the 
manner how, the end to which the action is done, 
together with the effects that must, or that may follow, 
and all other surrounding circumstances; these things 
must necessarily be taken into view, in order to deter- 
mine whether the action, which is indifferent in itself, 
be either lawful or unlawful, good or evil, wise or foolish, 
decent or indecent, proper or improper. 5 

Females have been said, and not without reason, to 
be fluctuating in purpose, desultory in action, and un- 
settled in principle. Possessing vast power over the 
destinies of the world, by their influence as wives and 
mothers, they have often been the cause of contention 
and misery among nations, and of agitation and disquiet 
in the more limited domestic sphere. Of how much 
importance to the well-being of mankind is it, that 
this fickle, restless, yet powerful being should become 
consistent and reflecting, and learn to exercise her 



MATHEMATICS. 239 

influence for the good of society. And how shall this 
be done? The question is answered by Watts, Locke, 
Stewart, and all other judicious writers on the power of 
education upon human character ; for all have united in 
giving their testimony to mathematical studies, as one 
of the most important aids to mental discipline. 

But it may be said, that these writers did not intend to 
apply their remarks to female education ; that it was 1 
for the other sex for whom they wrote. Strange indeed, 
if the nearer the mind of man resembles in its organi- 
zation that of woman, the more he should be required to 
follow investigations calculated to fix the attention and 
strengthen reason, while for woman herself, this should 
be considered unnecessary and improper. 

Women are often reproached for their limited vieivs, 
their low and narrow conceptions ; true it is, that their 
sphere of action tends to such results. The minute 
objects towards which their attention is necessarily 
directed, the routine of their domestic duties and occu- 
pations have a tendency to contract their minds. — How 
shall this be remedied ? Let the direction of Watts on 
this subject be our answer. Although in his day he 
could |not have anticipated this application of his re- 
marks, yet had the appeal even then been made to his 
judgment in behalf of women, I am persuaded the jus- 
tice of his character and the benevolence of his heart 
would have secured a verdict in their favor. 

Again, with respect to 'our conduct in matters of pru- 
dence and duty,' as Watts expresses it; 'it is owing to 
the narrowness of our minds, that we are exposed to peril 
here.' What human being more needs a sure guide in 
matters of prudence and duty than woman 1 Caressed 
and flattered, and yet watched with jealousy and suspi- 
cion — thrown off her guard by the most tender indulgence, 
while the slightest shadow of imprudence renders her lia- 
ble to misconstruction and reproach, — does she not need 
an unerring standard of rectitude in her own bosom, a 
clear and acute sense of her own actual condition ; pru- 
dence to direct her in the path of duty, and fortitude to sus- 
tain her under various trials 1 The mode of discipline by 
which the human mind maybe brought to a calm, ration- 



240 MATHEMATICS. 

al and dignified state, is pointed out in the passage of 
Watts to which we have referred. An enlarged and ex- 
tended view of our various duties and relations towards 
ourselves, our friends, society, and especially towards our 
Maker, accompanied with virtuous principles and disci- 
plined minds, cannot fail to secure respectability in this 
world, and happiness in a future state. 

We are far from considering mathematics as the only 
instrument of that mental discipline which we feel to be 
so necessary for our sex ; every branch of education, 
which has a tendency to fix the attention, to impress 
truth upon the mind, and to produce the habit cf reasoning 
closely and consecutively, is of importance in this view. 
We have already spoken of the studies of grammar, lan- 
guages, geography and history, as auxiliaries in this 
great work. The studies of natural science, mental 
and moral philosophy, are all of great utility in the form- 
ation of character: but the study of mathematics has, by 
philosophers, been considered the most direct way of 
controlling the imagination, perfecting reason and judg- 
ment, and inducing a habit of method and love of order. 

The term mathematics is derived from the Greek verb 
maiheo, to learn. This science treats of quantity or 
whatever can be measured, as in geometry, or numbered, 
as in arithmetic and algebra. Mathematics is divided 
into pure and mixed; pure mathematics is the abstract 
consideration of quantity, without any reference to mat- 
ter ; mixed mathematics treats of magnitude as subsist- 
ing in material bodies, which are subject to certain laws, 
a knowledge of which constitutes natural philosophy. 
Mathematics here becomes united to natural philosophy, 
and hence arises the term, mixed mathematics. The 
reasoning in mathematics is of that kind called demon- 
strative, or that which admits of positive proof. Thus the 
truths developed in the reasoning of the first proposition 
of Euclid admit of no more dispute than the axiom that 
things equal to the same, are equal to one another ; the 
latter is self-evident, or apparent without any reasoning; 
but the truth of the former is not evident without the in- 
termediate steps used in the reasoning. 

Moral reasoning is of a different kind, and cannot be 



MATHEMATICS. 241 

rendered thus positive. Dr. Paley asserts that ' virtue 
is the doing good, in obedience to the will of God, and 
for the sake of everlasting happiness.' Now if he could 
have proved this by a train of reasoning founded upon a 
self-evident proposition, no one would distrust the as- 
sertion ; yet many do dispute it, which shows that it is 
not proved to complete demonstration, for the human 
mind cannot dispute such evidence. Some moral truths 
do however seem to admit a proof equal to demon- 
stration. Thus the existence of God is demonstrated, 
from the existence of matter, which could not have crea- 
ted itself. Taking then for an axiom or first truth, what 
seems self-evident, we would say that matter must have 
been made — it cannot have made itself, therefore since it 
does exist, it must have had a maker ; this maker we call 
God. Yet an atheist might object to what we called a self- 
evident truth — he might say, we are not certain that mat- 
ter has not existed from eternity. He may of course object 
to our reasoning, if he does not consent to our premises 
or the foundation of our arguments. Yet demonstrative 
reasoning is not to render us unbelieving on moral sub- 
jects ; but the rather, tends by accustoming the mind to 
deliberate investigation and careful comparison of proofs, 
to detect the true from the false, even in moral reasoning. 

Mathematics is peculiarly a science of comparisons ; 
these comparisons are always exact and may be made 
manifest to the senses. When it is said there are fifty 
yards of ribbon in a piece, there is an exact and sensible 
comparison between the ribbon in the piece, and the 
length of the yard measure, fifty times repeated. 

A French writer* says, ' is it not certain that a young 
person accustomed to the justness and accuracy of math- 
ematical demonstrations, habituated to exercise his intel- 
lect in discovering the connexion of ideas in a train of rea- 
soning in order to prove a truth, is it not certain that such 
an one will carry into the world a penetrating and observ- 
ing mind ; that he will pursue other studies with greater 
facility, when his judgment and all his intellectual facul- 

* Delpierre du Tremblay, author of Lettres sur les Etude, et sur 
leur Rapport Jlvec L ' Entendement Humain. 

21 



242 ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 

ties have been exercised and strengthened by mathematical 
investigations. Many persons who have not sufficiently 
reflected upon the manner in which our faculties can be 
exercised to the greatest advantage, and upon the assist- 
ance which the sciences mutually render to each other, 
say that the mind can pursue any science to which it 
gives attention, that it is but lost time to occupy it with 
mathematics instead of the profession which is to be the 
business of life. But has the mind always the capacity 
for the study of any kind of science ? Is it not necessa- 
ry to form the judgment by preliminary studies 1 And 
are not the mathematics the best means of accomplish- 
ing this, and the method of reasoning and investigation 
acquired in this science a most important aid in all 
others ? ' Suppose of two young persons of equal talents, 
and who have devoted equal time to study, the one is a 
geometrician, and the other has given her time more to 
other branches of knowledge — suppose these two com- 
mencing together some new science, botany, chemistry, or 
mental philosophy, we shall soon perceive the great 
advantage which the knowledge and practice of mathe- 
matical reasoning gives the one, over the other, in the 
mode of arranging facts, of developing truth, and per- 
forming such mental analyses as are necessary to disen- 
tangle, and bring to light the most complicated subjects. 
For the greatest discoveries, which have enlightened the 
world we are indebted chiefly to those powerful minds 
which have first strengthened and invigorated them- 
selves at the fountains of mathematical knowledge: 
Descartes, Mallebranche, Gallileo, Kepler, Bacon, Locke, 
Newton, and Fontenelle. Plato wrote over the entrance 
into his school, ' He who has not studied the Elements 
of Geometry cannot enter here.' 

Arithmetic and Algebra. 

Arithmetic is the lowest and most simple branch of 
mathematics. The word is derived from the Greek 
arithmos, signifying number. It is the science of num- 
bers. Arithmetical calculation signifies operations per- 
formed by various modes of adding, subtracting, multi- 



ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 243 

plying or dividing. The word calculation, (in French 
called calcul,) is derived from a Latin word signifying 
little stones, because the ancients used such, instead of 
figures in their arithmetical computations. All our 
numbers are expressed by different arrangements of the 
cipher and the nine figures, called digits. These were 
learned from the Arabians, who are said to have 
derived their knowledge from countries still farther 
east. The Greeks and Romans used the letters of their 
alphabet to express numbers. Thus, instead of the 
Arabic character for 1 they used the letter I ; for 2 they 
used II; for 3, III; for 4, IV, &,c. 

Of all the sciences, arithmetic is perhaps the most 
ancient, it having been taught by the Egyptians 600 
years before Christ. It is said they attempted to ex- 
plain everything by numbers, and even thought that an 
accurate knowledge of these would conduct them to th 
fountain of divinity, to God himself. 

It is unnecessary to urge the importance of this study 
as a branch of female education, since this is universally 
admitted ; but it cannot be unnecessary to recommend 
a more practical use of it than is generally made. I 
should blush for any pupil of this institution, who, after 
having studied arithmetic even but a short time, should 
be found ignorant of the proper method of keeping an ac- 
count, or of making out a bill. The practical object of 
arithmetic is to teach you to do those things. It should 
also have a moral influence on the conduct by teaching 
you to regulate your expenses according to your income. 
Many a man has been ruined because his wife and daugh- 
ters have not practised arithmetic ; and there are those, who 
resorting to dishonest methods for procuring wealth, have 
dragged out in a state's prison a miserable existence, which 
economy in their family might have rendered virtuous and 
happy. Suppose that a man in business earns a thousand 
dollars a year ; which is probably as large an income, as, 
upon an average, is received by clergymen, lawyers, physi- 
cians and merchants in this country ; — in many cases, from 
this income, house-rent is to be paid, fuel and provisions 
furnished, children to be educated, and a family cloth- 
ed. What, in such a situation, should be the manage- 



244 ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 

ment of a wife and daughters? Perhaps some may 
reason something in this way, — my husband or father has 
an income of a thousand dollars ; now, I want this shawl 
which costs only thirty dollars, or this bonnet which 
costs only twenty, and this will be but a very little part 
of the yearly income. — I am sure it can be easily spared. 
But if the calculation was first made, how much of 
this sum must be expended in necessaries, it would be 
at once seen that very little could be afforded for 
superfluities. 

Arithmetic teaches only the properties of numbers 
which are known ; its calculations are carried on by the 
use of figures ; but in Algebra, letters are made to rep- 
resent quantities that are unknown. It takes for grant- 
ed the unknown quantity sought, and by means of one 
or more given quantities, proceeds, until the supposed 
quantity is discovered by some other known quantity to 
which it is equal. The first letters of the alphabet, a, 6, 
c, &c. are commonly employed to stand for known 
quantities — the last, as x, y, &c. for unknown. By this 
process, many questions are solved, which could not have 
been done by simple arithmetic. A knowledge of alge- 
bra is necessary in geometry, mechanics, astronomy, and 
all branches of science which depend on mathematical 
demonstration. To those who desire a thorough educa- 
tion, a knowledge of algebra must therefore be deemed 
of importance, since it leads the way to so many other 
sciences. Not that some knowledge of astronomy, 
natural philosophy, and geometry may not be ac- 
quired without the assistance of algebra ; but this know- 
ledge must necessarily be limited and imperfect. 

Arithmetic may be considered as a germ, which con- 
tains within it the principles of algebra. The two 
sciences are intimately connected ; a knowledge of the 
one throws light upon the other. Arithmetic being the 
more simple, some knowledge of it should be possessed 
before commencing algebra. Every step then taken in 
the latter science, will throw light upon the former, 
and processes which, performed by arithmetical rules, ap- 
peared tedious and complicated, may, by algebraic prin- 
ciples, be rendered clear and simple. Besides the prac- 



GEOMETRY. 245 

tical uses of this science, the accurate analysis which it 
teaches, is an important means of intellectual discipline. 
Some would refer the origin of algebra to Plato, 
because he first taught the principles of analysis, which are 
so necessary to the existence of this science ; but it is 
generally attributed to the Arabians, from whose lan- 
guage the word algebra is taken. In its original mean- 
ing, it signifies a reduction of fractions. The first 
treatise on algebra is said to have been written by Dio- 
phantes, a philosopher of Alexandria, who lived in the 
reign of Antoninus, toward the middle of the second 
century. In the fifth century, Hypasia, the daughter of 
Theon, a celebrated geometrician, published a comment 
on the treatise of Diophantes. This comment a learned 
French mathematician notices as ' exhibiting a depth of 
thought, of which few men are capable.' Hypasia may be 
considered the first, who brought the science of algebra 
into a regular system. This woman, whom the same 
writer calls the ' honor of her sex,' was professor in the 
famous school at Alexandria, and filled with distinguish- 
ed credit, a place which had been rendered illustrious 
by many great and learned men. The people, stirred up 
by some persons, envious of Hypasia's fame, accused her 
of political intrigues, and cruelly murdered her in the 
professor's chair. As the acquirements of this woman 
are recorded in history, as a wonderful phenomenon, we 
infer the general prevalence of ignorance among the 
females of that period. 

Geometry. 

Geometry, an important branch of mathematical 
science, takes its name from two Greek words, ge, land 
or earth, and metron y measure, signifying to measure land. 
This science is supposed to have originated in Egypt. 
According to two very ancient historians, Herodotus and 
Strabo, the inundations of the Nile carrying away their 
land-marks, the Egyptians invented the art of measuring 
and dividing their lands, in order that each "might dis- 
tinguish his own territory, by its particular figure, 
and the surface which it was known to contain. 
21* 



246 GEOMETRY. 

Thus imperfect was geometry in its origin, commenc- 
ing by a series of observations which were confined 
to actual substances. By degrees mankind began to 
generalize their observations of particular facts, and 
geometry became a noble and exact science, constituting 
a firm basis on which many other sciences are founded. 
Geometry is the science of extension, and not only 
signifies the measuring of land, but of the heavens 
also ; for by its aid, astronomers have been able to ascer- 
tain the dimensions of the heavenly bodies, the space 
through which they travel, and their distance from each 
other. All the truths and reasonings of geometry are 
founded on a few simple truths which are self-evident to 
all who possess common understanding. They cannot 
be explained, since there are no truths of a more sim- 
ple kind by which they may be illustrated. Any person 
who does not perceive that a whole is greater than a 
part, or that two things equal to a third, must be equal 
to one another, must be considered as wanting in what 
is expressively termed common sense. Thus it is that 
in children who prove to be idiots, it is usually first ob- 
served that they do not understand these simple, or as 
philosophers call them self-evident truths. If a child 
old enough to comprehend the term one, does not under- 
stand that one and one make two, we have reason to 
fear that it has no understanding, or, in other words, is 
a fool. Thus the ready comprehension of self-evident 
mathematical truths, and the power to reason from these 
to less simple truths, is considered as a test of a clear 
and sound understanding. 

Our sex have been allowed to possess the faculty of 
imagination, and the affections of the heart, in a superior 
degree ; but we have been thought deficient in reasoning 
powers. Now it is the reasoning faculty which distin- 
guishes the human species from the brutes: if woman 
is in reality devoid of this noble faculty, then is she a 
kind of intermediate link between man and the brute 
creation — and the Christian religion, like the Mahome- 
tan, should have provided in a future state some middle 
region for this being, who is neither to be, like the brutes 
annihilated, nor like the nobler part of creation, entitled 



GEOMETRY. 24* 

to a rank among superior intelligences. But it is unne- 
cessary to urge anything on this point : women have now 
little to complain of, with respect to liberality of feeling 
towards them, on the subject of education. Advantages 
are now placed before them ; they may prove the strength 
of their reasoning powers, in the study of mathematics, 
of logic, and even metaphysics, without fear of reproach 
for attempting to pass the limits, which nature has 
assigned for the operations of their minds. It is for you, 
young ladies, who are here assembled, to prove by your 
own example, that knowledge is not to be a curse to 
your sex; that it is to lead them in the path of duty, not 
out of it ; that it is to make them better daughters, wives, 
and mothers; better qualified for usefulness in every path 
within the sphere of female exertions. By being enabled 
to see more clearly the peculiar obligations which devolve 
upon you in your various relations, and to discern the 
boundary between your duties, and those of the other 
sex, shall it be that you will the more seek to pass that 
barrier, which the Almighty himself in the peculiarities 
of physical as well as mental constitution, has estab- 
lished between the sexes ? You are not called upon to 
lead armies, to make and execute laws, and to preside 
over public safety. But you may be called upon to pre- 
side over the domestic circle, to regulate families by your 
wisdom, and to guide and enlighten the youthful mind: 
— -in the proper performance of these duties, will you 
need all that clearness of reason, and solidity of judg- 
ment to which a thorough and well-conducted education 
may conduce. The object in all attempted improvements 
in female education, should not be to lead woman from 
her own proper sphere, but to qualify her for the better 
discharge of those duties which lie within it. It is for you 
to prove by meek and gentle manners, by your pious walk 
and conversation, that the daughters of Eve may eat of 
the tree of knowledge, without danger or sin. No law, 
divine or human, forbids that the female mind should 
seek to penetrate the mysteries of science — and may we 
not hope that the sad consequences of the disobedience 
of the first woman, will, in some degree, be averted from 
the earth, by enlightening the minds of her daughters? 



248 GEOMETRY. 

But we have wandered from our immediate subject, 
in following a train of thought which naturally presented 
itself. We have spoken of the origin and meaning of 
geometry. It remains briefly to trace its progress. From 
Egypt, it is said to have been carried to Greece by Thales, 
who, not satisfied to teach the Greeks what he had learn- 
ed from the Egyptians, enriched the science with many 
propositions of his own. Pythagoras afterwards success- 
fully cultivated geometry, and added to it, among other 
propositions, that of the square of the hypothenuse. 
Anaxagoras and Plato studied to explain the quadrature 
of the circle ; but Euclid, who lived four hundred years 
before Christ, and fifty after Plato, collecting all the truths 
that his predecessors had discovered, and adding many of 
his own propositions, maybe considered as having estab- 
lished the science on a firm foundation. Of all sciences, 
none now remains so nearly as it existed in ancient days 
as that of geometry. The work of Euclid, although many 
improvements have professedly been made, still remains 
much as he left it. 

We shall not consider the subject of Mixed Mathemat- 
ics separately. Those of you who are now studying these 
subjects, as illustrated in Enfield's Philosophy, are mak- 
ing a practical application of algebra and geometry. 
You should as far as possible connect with your investi- 
gations the idea of actual substances; for the mere 
theory of mechanics or optics is of little use, without a 
knowledge of their applications to the common objects 
around you. I recently heard a young lady, who had 
studied optics, call that a shadow upon the water, 
which was a reflection. Females are not, in general, 
as practical as the other sex ; they are much less abroad, 
where the operations and phenomena of nature may be 
observed, and they find it more difficult to transfer their 
views from their books to nature. Those of you who are 
studying Enfield, might learn much practical science 
from an unlettered farmer or mechanic, who, although he 
could not explain the principles of motion and force by 
mathematical demonstrations, might yet teach you many 
useful facts, learned by experience and observation. 

In concluding this lecture, I would remark that it is far 



RHETORIC. 249 

from my intention to depreciate those many excellent and 
elevated women, who have honorably discharged their 
duties in life, without a knowledge of mathematics, or 
without those advantages for mental improvement which 
females at the present day enjoy ; — such cases do not 
invalidate any of the arguments we have offered on this 
subject. These are the very women, who, with lofty views 
of female duty and influence, and a strong sense of the 
weakness of their sex, would be the first to plead that 
they might be better fitted to discharge their duties, to 
exert a beneficial influence, and that their minds might 
be strengthened and fortified by a judicious and liberal 
education. 



LECTURE XX. 

Rhetoric, Criticism, Composition. 

The studies of Rhetoric and Criticism, are more es- 
pecially designed for the cultivation of those faculties of 
mind, called taste and imagination. Taste has by many 
writers been termed a simple independent power or sense ; 
but by Dr. Brown it is considered as a complex state of 
mind, which may be analyzed into judgment and an emo- 
tion. The human mind is formed with a susceptibility of 
certain emotions, as beauty, sublimity and ludicrousness ; 
these emotions are those on which taste chiefly depends, or 
which, in conjunction with judgment, constitute taste. 
Thus a painter, having experienced the emotion of beauty, 
exercises his judgment in forming such combinations as 
may produce in others the same emotion. A poet must have 
experienced emotions, before he can by an effort of art 
produce them in others; and he exercises his judgment 
no less in the selection and combination of his images, 
than the chemist, who puts together substances in order 
to produce a certain result. That is, both the poet and 
chemist judge of the fitness of ideas and of objects to pro- 
duce their determinate effects. 



250 RHETORIC. 

For a clear and interesting explanation of the elements 
of taste, and of its three most essential qualities, refinement, 
delicacy and correctness, I would refer you to the inter- 
esting and useful system of Rhetoric, now adopted as a 
class book in this Institution.* The author of this work 
has taken up the subject in a philosophical and practical 
manner. He at once informs the student that the art of 
writing well, is not to be obtained by a set of rules, but 
that ' the store-house of the mind must be well filled ; and 
he must have that command of his treasures which will 
enable him to bring forward, whenever the occasion may 
require, what has been accumulated, for future use.' He 
dwells particularly upon the necessity of mental discipline, 
especially the previous cultivation of the reasoning pow- 
ers; and observes that ' the student who, in the course of 
his education is called to search for truth in the labyrinth 
of metaphysical and moral reasonings, and to toil in the 
wearisome study of the long and intricate solutions of 
mathematical principles, is acquiring that discipline of 
the mind, which fits him to distinguish himself as an able 
writer. 

You will perceive that the different branches of know- 
ledge we have already considered, are all conducive to 
one great end, that of enabling a person to compose with 
elegance and facility. And is this an object of little im- 
portance, even to our sex 1 We are permitted to use the 
pen as our tastes, genius, or mental acquirements may 
direct. Even the composition of a simple note of 
ceremony, attests the fact of mental cultivation, or the 
want of it; and a letter on the most common subject, 
plainly indicates the nature of the writer's education. 
Higher efforts of mind, such as stories for children, re- 
ligious tracts, and works in the various departments con- 
nected with education, are all now considered as offering 
proper employment for the exertion of female talents. 
But it must be remembered that these talents should be 
cultivated with the most assiduous care — that the various 
fields of knowledge should be explored, as far as possible, 
in order to become a successful candidate for literary 
distinction. The time has gone by, when a publication 

* Newman's Rhetoric. 



RHETORIC. 257 

meets with indulgence, because its author is a woman ; 
we must now expect to be judged by our real merits, and 
our titles to approbation. 

Grammar and rhetoric bear to each other an intimate 
relation ; the former teaches the method of speaking and 
writing with accuracy, the latter of arranging our thoughts 
with propriety and elegance. The science of rhetoric is 
founded upon observations made by philosophers, of the 
nature and operations of the human mind, and by a criti- 
cal analysis of the style, and an examination of the meth- 
ods of arrangement of those authors whose works have 
been most generally approved. The chapter on Litera- 
ry Taste in Newman's Rhetoric is well written, and cal- 
culated to give just ideas of the peculiar merits of dif- 
ferent authors ; it also happily illustrates the proper use 
of rhetorical figures. The chapter on style, is an inter- 
esting exposition of the qualities of a good style, and the 
modes of writing which characterize different individu- 
als. This little work leads the pupil to a knowledge 
of the rules and principles of rhetoric, in an easy and 
simple manner, and has the merit of more originality than 
many school books, which profess to be improvements. 

Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric have been deservedly pop- 
ular : they are writen in a pure and concise style ; but the 
larger work is too voluminous for beginners, and the 
abridgement, as is usually the case, is a mere skeleton, 
without suitable illustrations. 

In pursuing the study of rhetoric, you should make it 
your constant aim to render your knowledge practical : 
you should examine authors, with a view of discovering 
their peculiar beauties or defects, and notice their use of 
the various figures of speech ; each of which you should 
accustom yourself to distinguish, wherever you meet them. 
This might be rendered interesting as an amusement. 
When several young ladies are passing leisure hours togeth- 
er, one might ask others to point out, in a certain page or 
chapter of a book, all the comparisons, metaphors, an- 
titheses, &c. which could be found. The suggestion and 
proper uses of figures, must be the result of much prac- 
tice in composition, as well as the fruit of learning. The 
study of rhetoric will not at once give you the power of 



252 CRITICISM. 

writing with ease and elegance : this requires a know- 
ledge of nature and of the human heart, a habit of deep 
and serious reflection, and a taste at once delicate and 
refined. 

Criticism is ranked in this institution as a higher study 
than the elementary works on rhetoric ; it is indeed a de- 
partment of rhetoric, but so extensive, that it has been 
treated separately by some distinguished writers. The 
best works on this subject which are now before the pub- 
lic are those of Kames, Alison, and Campbell. Karnes' 
Criticism contains much valuable philosophy ; the author 
appears to have studied the human heart with considera- 
ble success : his style is agreeable and he carries his read- 
er along with him in an easy companionship. The stu- 
dy of this work is an excellent preparation for mental 
philosophy ; indeed it was, by the author, designed to hold 
a middle rank between moral speculations and the study 
of the natural and mathematical sciences. Without at- 
tempting a theory and classification of the passions, Lord 
Kames gives a variety of practical illustrations of their 
operations and moving principles ; and such as are cal- 
culated to be of great use to a young person on entering 
into life. The greatest objection to his work on criticism 
is the occasional obsoleteness of the style, (the third edi- 
tion was published as far back as 1761) and a want of 
system in his arrangements. These faults may be rem- 
edied by the remarks of teachers, and care on their part 
to make a better arrangement. The practical part of 
criticism will not probably be acquired in a very great 
degree by the study of Kames, or any other author ; but 
a new stock of ideas may be gained, and the power of 
making for yourselves critical distinctions. 

Alison is a writer of peculiar beauty and sweetness : 
the fault in his work, as a text-book on criticism, is that 
he confines himself to the subjects of beauty and sublim- 
ity, a sphere too circumscribed for so extensive a science. 
The politeness and respect with which Alison speaks of 
the ' profound remarks of Lord Kames/ furnish a pleas- 
ant contrast to the illiberality with which writers often 
speak of those who have preceded them in any particular 
department of literature. The whole work of Alison is 



CRITICISM. 253 

replete with beautiful passages, calculated to inspire the 
reader with noble and just sentiments. In his essays up- 
on the beauty and sublimity of the material world, he 
leads the mind to the delightful contemplation of nature 
and the Author of nature. After expatiating on the 
moral effect of the study of nature upon the mind, he 
finely and piously observes ' there is yet, however, a 
greater expression which the appearances of the material 
world are fitted to convey, and a more important influ- 
ence which, in the design of nature, they are destined to 
produce upon us : their influence, I mean, in leading us 
directly to religious sentiment. Had organic enjoyment 
been the only object of our formation, it would have been 
sufficient to establish senses for the reception of these 
enjoyments. But if the promises of our nature are great- 
er — if it is destined to a nobler conclusion — if it is ena- 
bled to look to the Author of Being himself, and to feel 
its proud relation to Him; then nature, in all its aspects 
around us, ought only to be felt as signs of his providence, 
and as conducting us, by the universal language of these 
signs, to the throne of the Deity.' 

After remarking upon the effect of natural scenery 
upon elevated minds, he adds: ' Even the thoughtless and 
the dissipated yield unconsciously to this beneficent in- 
stinct ; and in the pursuit of pleasure, return, without 
knowing it, to the first and the noblest sentiments of their 
nature. They leave the society of cities, and all the ar- 
tificial pleasures, which they feel to have occupied, with- 
out satiating their imagination. They hasten into those 
solitary, and those uncultivated scenes, where they seem 
to breathe a purer air, and to experience more profound 
delight. They leave behind them all the arts, and all 
the labors of man, to meet nature in her primeval mag- 
nificence and beauty. Amid the slumber of their usual 
thoughts, they love to feel themselves awakened to those 
deep and majestic emotions which give a new and a no- 
bler expansion to their hearts, and amid the tumult and 
astonishment of their imagination, 

To behold the present God 
On the rocks by man untrod, 

22 



254 COMPOSITION. 

On the hill-tops wild and rude, 
On the cliff's deep solitude. 
Where the roaring waters move, 
In the darkness of the grove.' 

It is particularly on account of its moral effect that it 
is of so much consequence to encourage their instinctive 
taste for the beauty and sublimity of nature. While it 
opens to the mind of childhood, or youth, a source of pure 
and of permanent enjoyment, it has consequences on the 
character and happiness of future life, which they are 
enabled to foresee. It is to provide them, amid all the 
agitations and trials of society, with one gentle and un- 
reproaching friend, whose voice is ever in alliance with 
goodness and virtue, and which, when once understood, 
is able both to soothe misfortune, and to reclaim from 
folly. It is to identify them with the happiness of that 
nature to which they belong ,* to give them an interest in 
every species of being which surrounds them ; and, amid 
the hours of curiosity and delight, to awaken those latent 
feelings of benevolence and of sympathy, from which all 
the moral or intellectual greatness of man finally arises. 
It is to lay the foundation of an early and of a manly 
piety : amid the magnificent system of material signs in 
which they reside, to give them the mighty key which 
can interpret them ; and to make them look upon the 
universe which they inhabit, not as the abode of human 
cares, or human joys only, but as the temple of the Liv- 
ing God, in which praise is due, and where service is to 
be performed. 

Composition. 

The study of Belles Lettres, or of rhetoric and criticism 
is introduced into education, principally for the purpose 
of improving the young in the art of composition. It is 
indeed pleasant to be able to judge of the performances 
of others, to know the causes of our approbation or dis- 
approbation of literary works, to enter into the secrets of 
the mind, and explore its mysterious laws, to compare the 
productions of genius with those rules which nature sug- 
gests, and to observe the uniformity of her operations in 



COMPOSITION. 255 

all well organized minds : all this is agreeable ; but it is still 
more desirable, still more delightful to be able of our- 
selves to execute, to be able to catch the ideal train, as 
they glide through our minds, and paint them in all their 
freshness and originality for our own future examination, 
or for the inspection of others. 

Of all the enjoyments granted to mortals, this is prob- 
ably the most exquisite and the most elevated ; to behol d 
before us the image of our own minds, the glowing tran- 
scripts of our own thoughts, as delineated by ourselves ; it 
seems to assimilate us in some degree with the great 
Creator of mind, when we are able to render its opera- 
tions visible. Many who are conscious of elevated 
thoughts are destitute of a power of expression suited to 
these ; many in whom the fire of genius is smothered by ig- 
norance and prejudice, feeling within themselves the work- 
ings of a latent intellect, sigh for education as the great- 
est of human blessings, the means of elevating the mind 
and rendering its operations sources of the highest enjoy- 
ment. Under the greatest disadvantages, the light of genius 
has occasionally burst forth, discovering upon the shoe- 
maker's bench a tuneful and sentimental Bloomfield, or at 
the plough a noble and high-souled Burns. But instances 
are rare in which unaided genius acquires the confidence 
to come forth, and try her pinions : education is required 
by most minds in order to give the courage and skill ne- 
cessary for effort in the regions of composition. And be- 
sides, we must acknowledge that genius is not a com- 
mon gift ; I mean that fire which, unless it can have 
yent, consumes the soul. And in this we see the good- 
ness of our Creator ; for genius is of too fine, too exqui- 
site a nature to bear the rude contact of worldly things ; 
it droops and folds its wings when calamities assail; even 
the imaginary sufferings of a flower transplanted from its 
own home, a rose plucked from its parent stem, or the 
agonies of a poor worm or insect, are sufficient to call forth 
its tender and plaintive wailings, — how then can it look 
upon human sufferings, povarty, oppression, injustice, 
treachery, pain and death 1 Indeed we often see that 
mind which exhibits unequivocal marks of genius, earlv 
lading away, as if the atmosphere of the world were too 



256 COMPOSITION. 

cold for its sensitive nature ; thus have Henry Kirk White 
and Lucretia Davidson,* and many others gradually sunk 
to an untimely grave, apparently through an excess of 
sensibility. 

But is there no remedy for this 1 Must the fairest and 
best of human blossoms be given up to be chilled by the 
frosts, and blighted by the mildews of an ungenial world? 
Let a suitable and proper direction be given to sensibili- 
ty, and it may be disciplined and chastened. Let educa- 
tion be properly conducted, and then will reason and 
judgment be brought to sustain and guide the trembling, 
aspiring etherial spirit, which is ever shrinking from 
real evils and refusing to look with steady eye upon the 
obstacles in the pathway of life. But, supported by rea- 
son and judgment, sensibility may learn to encounter 
evils and to overcome difficulties ; especially does she need 
the aid of religion to reconcile her to earthly sufferings, 
in view of a happier future. I have spoken of sensibility, 
because I believe it always belongs to true genius, and 
to be the cause of those frequent failures in life which are 
observable among those who are highly gifted ; but a prop- 
er mode of education may do much towards chastening, 
and giving it a right direction. 

Lucretia Davidson, the lovely girl whose precocious 
powers have been the admiration of many, probably fell a 
victim to an extreme and morbid sensibility : many of you 
are aware that several years since, she was a member of 
this institution ; some of you may remember her personal- 
ly. She had, in her childhood, been indulged in her fond- 
ness for seclusion and solitary musings. Her educa- 
tion, owing to peculiar circumstances, had not been sys- 
tematically and thoroughly pursued. On her entering 
the Seminary, she at once surprised us by the brilliancy 
and pathos of her compositions, — she evinced a most ex- 
quisite sense of the beautiful in the productions of her 
pencil; always giving to whatever she attempted to copy, 

* Miss Davidson died at about the age of seventeen ; a volume 
of her posthumous works, entitled ' Amir Kahn, and other Poems,' 
has received much praise from critics. The British Reviewers 
spoke of it as an extraordinary production, comparing her to their 
favorite and lamented White. 



COMPOSITION. 257 

certain peculiar and original touches which marked the 
liveliness of her conceptions, and the power of her genius 
to embody those conceptions. But from studies which 
required calm and steady investigation, efforts of memo- 
ry, judgment and consecutive thinking, her mind seem- 
ed to shrink. She had no confidence in herself, and ap- 
peared to regard with dismay any requisitions of this na- 
ture. Even in geography, which was one of her studies, 
she found a difficulty in preparing herself for recitations. 
At the approach of an examination, she was agonized 
with the fear of disgracing her class by her appearance ; 
and in order to calm her apprehensions, I had promised 
to ask her very few questions. When it came her turn 
to recite, instead of taking the subject next in order, 
which would have been an explanation of the ' geological 
structure of the globe,' and which the poor trembling girl 
had never felt an interest in knowing, I asked her to 
give some account of the peculiarities of the torrid zone. 
Miss Davidson's countenance brightened : she begun with 
the sweetest tones of voice to describe the vegetable won- 
ders of those regions, the spreading bananas, the lofty 
bamboo trees, forests rendered impenetrable by the lux- 
uriancy of vegetation, and blooming with perennial ver- 
dure and beauty. She spoke of the mighty elephant, the 
hippopotamus, rolling his enormous bulk along the rivers 
of Africa, the fierce lions and tigers, poisonous reptiles 
and ensnaring crocodiles, the great anaconda, wind- 
ing his huge coils around his helpless victim ; nor did she 
fail to describe that dreadful vampyre, which seeks the 
traveller in his hour of sleep and gluts itself with his 
blood. She then, with a new and kindling emotion, spoke 
of the brilliant fire-flies which illuminate those regions 
in the night as with a mass of liquid light, of the bound- 
ing antelope, and of the beautiful gazelle, whose brilliant 
and fascinating eyes are the admiration of the beholder. 
So vivid in my mind is the recollection of her animated 
and enthusiastic manner at that time, the bright flashing of 
her dark eye., and the glow of her brilliant complexion, 
that the conception appears like reality, and it seems as if 
she now stood before me, the living image of youthful ge- 
nius and sensibility. But the grave has for many years 
22* 



258 COMPOSITION. 

shrouded her form, once so interesting. We may not ima- 
gine the process which is going on in that dreadful labora- 
tory, where the elements which compose the human body 
are separated and set free to enter into other combina- 
tions ; we will rather say with the poet, 

' Not to the grave my soul, 

Not to the grave descend to contemplate 

The form that once was dear ! ' 

it is better to think of the spirit as disencumbered of its 
load of clay, and an inhabitant of a purer world. 

I have introduced the character of this young lady to 
show you the great importance of early mental discipline ; 
for, lovely as genius and sensibility may be, in order to be 
useful, in order to be fitted for life, they must be sustained 
by the other mental powers. We see the evils of suffering 
any one department of mind to usurp unlimited power over 
the other. If one could not be a fine writer, without be- 
coming unfit for the duties of life ; if talents were necessari- 
ly connected with eccentricities, I would at once warn all 
my sex from attempting to acquire these dangerous gifts; 
but I trust it is unnecessary for me to point out the ma- 
ny ladies who at this time hold an important standing in 
the literary world, and are yet among the most active 
supporters of social and religious institutions, who are 
equally distinguished for domestic virtues as for high 
mental endowments. 

But we are yet to go back to the first attempts of the 
pupil in the art of composition ; this it. is necessary to 
do for the benefit of the younger members of the institu- 
tion, and of some others to whom the idea of writing 
compositions is new and appalling. 

Those who are studying languages, will derive great 
assistance in composition from the habit of translating. 
It appears to me that this advantage has not been suf- 
ficiently estimated ' were it indeed the only one, I should 
think it a sufficient compensation for the labor which is 
necessary in acquiring a language. If you take a fine 
passage of a Latin or French author, and attempt to trans- 
late it, the mind, gradually seizing upon the ideas, seems 
to adopt them as its own ; and feeling itself elevated by 
this new acquisition, becomes capable of greater efforts. 



COMPOSITION. 259 

In translating, particular attention should be paid to 
the exact import of words; thus, the word sentiment which 
in English is applied to opinions, is in French restricted 
to the feelings of the heart, it being derived from the verb 
sentir, to feel. The French would not then speak of 'po- 
litical sentiments , but political opinions; they would speak 
of a sentiment of gratitude or love : when you reflect on 
the origin of the word sentiment, you will perceive that 
there is a propriety in making this distinction between 
this word and opinion, which is derived from a Latin verb 
signifying to believe. To those of you whose under- 
standing and observation have not furnished you with a 
stock of ideas for composition, translation may be recom- 
mended as a substitute, until you shall have acquired the 
confidence aud ability to compose. 

I am aware that of all your exercises, many of you find 
original composition the most difficult; indeed it is not 
strange you do so : when you write, you can only express 
by written characters the thoughts which you have gain- 
ed by reflection and observation. If you have reflected 
or observed but little, your stock of intellectual wealth 
must be small ; and who can impart to others that which 
they do not possess 1 It may be said, then, why should 
we be required to write compositions before we are capa- 
ble of writing well ? I answer, that if you have but a 
small capital to begin with, your stores will increase by 
use ; but permit me to caution you as to a choice of sub- 
jects ; for beginners in composition, often choose such as 
would require a philosopher to investigate. 

For example, let us suppose a young Miss, unaccus- 
tomed to confine her thoughts, for any length of time, 
to any given subject, writing a composition on Grat- 
itude. She has a vague idea that gratitude id some- 
thing praise-worthy, and begins by saying, 'that it is a 
virtue that all should possess.' When she has proceeded 
so far, she does not well know what more to say ; but 
the composition must be written ; and so she proceeds 
to say that 'every one ought to be grateful, and 
when they .see people in distress, they ought to relieve 
their wants: — thus she goes from gratitude to benevo* 



260 COMPOSITION. 

lence, and, confounding the two virtues, destroys all dis- 
tinctions of terms and ideas. 

It is very important that in your attempts at writing 
you confine yourselves to subjects with which you are in 
some degree familiar. No matter how common, or tri- 
vial may be the theme ; the object is to acquire a habit 
of expressing your ideas in writing, with clearness and 
simplicity. For example, give a description of your own 
dwelling house, state its length, width, and mode of con- 
struction, the materials of which it is composed ; and 
a little reflection, with some previous learning, would 
suggest to you the improvements which have been made 
in the building of houses and other kinds of architecture. 
You might describe your own room, with its furniture, 
&/C. ; or, looking out upon the prospect before you, deline- 
ate in words the various objects before you. Any pro- 
duction of nature or art, might furnish you with ideas. 
For instance, suppose you should write about an apple 
— you may think this a very insignificant subject — but 
nothing that God has made is insignificant ; nor is the 
power of describing the most common object to be des- 
pised. Well, now begin to think what you could find to 
say about an apple : you all know to which of the king- 
doms of nature it belongs ; you know that it is a fruit, 
originating from a flower of a certain kind — the kind of 
flower might be described, the usual height of the tree 
on which it grows, the climate most favorable to the 
growth of this tree, the various culinary uses of the apple, 
the evil purposes to which the ingenuity of man has per- 
verted it, &c. I have yet touched upon few of the sub- 
jects which your theme might suggest, and yet much 
might be said upon each one of the abovementioned 
heads. A fly, a bee, or a butterfly, might afford subjects 
for your pen. I do not mean that you are in your de- 
scriptions of an apple or an insect, to write as a botanist 
or geologist would do, but that you express in simple 
language your own observations upon these, or any other 
objects. I have said your own observations ; you will 
please to notice this, for without observation you cannot 
write on any subject, except it be merely to repeat like 
the parrot, what you hear from others, But by attempt- 



COMPOSITION. 261 

ing to describe common objects you will see the need of 
observation and attention with respect to common things, 
and that learning is not confined to the knowledge which 
is contained in books. 

By using your knowledge, however small the slock at 
first may be, you will continue to add to your intellectu- 
al stores; the idea of wanting to know something that 
you may communicate in your composition, will induce 
you to pay attention to objects around you, to hear the 
remarks of wiser people, and to recollect what you read 
in books. But do not allow yourselves to borrow from 
others. On reading a very spirited or profound compo- 
sition from a young lady of limited talents and opportu- 
nities, a teacher immediately believes that it is borrowed, 
even should it chance that she has not before seen the 
same thing. This is not only stealing, but defrauding 
yourselves. If you begin with compositions, above your 
own capacities, you must continue them, or the deception 
will at once appear to your companions, as well as teach- 
ers. But I should very unwillingly believe that any pu- 
pil can be so lost to honorable sentiments as to wish to 
gain reputation for talents she does not possess, or so 
unjust to herself as to prevent her own improvement in 
the attempt to seem to be, what she is not. 

You have heard some things that may be said upon 
an apple. Look around you, and you see innumerable 
objects in the productions of nature and art; all of these 
have peculiarities of their own, which may be describ- 
ed even with no other knowledge of them, than you may 
gain by your sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell, — in- 
numerable comparisons between these objects will also 
naturally suggest themselves to your minds ; as you ac- 
quire more knowledge, you will think of many relations 
existing between them which you now do not observe. 
The subject of geology, on which you all have the advan- 
tage of hearing lectures, will serve to lead even the 
youngest of you to reflect on the many things which may 
be said even of stones. You have perhaps thought that 
all were alike, but you now find that there is diversity 
of character among rocks, as well as people. The rocks 
are not morally or intellectually different from each oth- 



262 COMPOSITION. 

er, since they are destitute of intelligence, and even of 
life, which plants possess — but rocks and stones are phy- 
sically different, that is, their external appearance is va- 
rious, and their chemical composition different. 

When you walk or ride out, you can always meet with 
something animate or inanimate that may serve for the 
subject of a composition. When you see a person in af- 
fliction, or behold some one debased by intoxication, or ta- 
king the name of God in vain, emotions of various kinds 
will be awakened, and under the influence of these you 
might be led to write with facility. When you see a good 
person relieving distress, you will sympathize with the feel- 
ings of those who receive this kindness, and thus you may, 
from your own observation and reflection, comprehend 
the nature and obligations of gratitude. Yet still you 
may not be able to investigate this emotion ; for in order 
to do this, you would need to be acquainted with the 
operations of the mind, and to explore the recesses of the 
human heart, and the relations of cause and effect. 

Although in some of the foregoing remarks I have 
more particularly addressed myself to the younger pupils, 
and those to whom the exercise of writing composition is 
new, I would say to all, be careful of going out of your own 
depth ; study to understand the nature of your own minds, 
and occupy yourselves with subjects which you most rea- 
dily and fully comprehend — write as if you had something 
to say, not as if you attempted to say something because 
you must write. If your minds are properly disciplined to 
habits of reflection, you must, with all that you are now 
studying, hearing and seeing, have something to say re- 
specting your own observations, reflections, sentiments 
and opinions. It is well for advanced pupils, to write 
frequently on the subjects which they are engaged in 
studying. 

A pupil in astronomy having beheld the heavens, 
traced the path of the constellations, contemplated the 
planets and the fixed stars, as they are arranged in their 
beautiful order, may surely find enough to say of such 
observations — she might, as genius or inclination prompt- 
ed, state in precise and scientific language the various 
celestial phenomena, or with an imagination kindling at 



COMPOSITION. 263 

such scenes rise to a style of sublimity. Or if a Christian, 
and impressed with the thoughts of the Divine Power 
which created and upholds this wonderful universe, she 
would naturally be led to pour forth the devout expressions 
of a pious heart. Mechanical philosophy, optics, botany, 
chemistry, and all physical subjects, should lead the 
mind of the student to the observation of nature, and 
such observations will furnish matter for composition. 

History and geography are fruitful in subjects for the 
exercise of the pen. Rhetoric and criticism are intend- 
ed chiefly to teach you to arrange your thoughts with 
clearness and elegance, and to avoid errors which might 
offend the ear of taste, and rules of composition. Moral 
philosophy, leading the mind to reflect upon the recipro- 
cal duties of mankind, and their common obligations 
to their Maker, cannot fail to suggest new trains of 
thought. 

And when the empire of the human mind is first un- 
folded, as it were, upon a map before you, and the many 
devious windings of thought traced to their mysterious 
sources ; when you are first led to perceive that the mind 
possesses the power of looking inwardly upon its own ope- 
rations, how many new and interesting ideas spring into 
existence ! Copy these in their own native freshness 
and vividness of coloring, and the transcript cannot fail 
of being delightful to others. 

The first impressions which the various branches of 
literature and science make upon the mind, have a char- 
acter of originality and enthusiasm, which cannot after- 
wards be caught — these evanescent emotions should 
then be secured by copies made when they are fresh 
and new. 

I have not recommended the attempt to write stories 
from the imagination ; this may be well occasionally, but 
it has the bad effect of bringing the mind too much un- 
der the dominion of fancy. It is better for young ladies 
to occupy themselves with realities, than to stray too 
much into the dangerous regions of imagination.. Besides, 
the practice of writing tales has a tendency to form a 
tinselled kind of style, not to be compared in dignity or 
propriety with a simple and plain manner of telling truth. 



264 logic. 

Indeed it is to be hoped that as the various departments 
of human knowledge become more filled with facts, and 
these facts are arranged according to the rules of science, 
ample scope will be found for the exercise of the human 
faculties ; — and although we desire not to see the province 
of fiction deserted, yet we would see a higher rank 
awarded to those who search for and discover truth, who 
assist and perfect nature, than to the fabricators of those 
gossamer tales which receive all their coloring from the 
varying and illusive hue of fancy, and which have 
no higher aim than the amusement of hours, which are 
already too short and too few for the great objects of hu- 
man existence. 

Poetry is a species of composition which none should 
attempt except those who are strongly prompted by genius. 
True poetical talent is rare, and can never be forced in- 
to existence : when it is possessed, it should be regarded 
as a precious gift from the Creator of mind, and en- 
listed in the service of virtue and piety. 



LECTURE XXI. 

Logic. — Moral Philosophy. — Intellectual Philosophy, 

The study of Logic should precede that of Intellectual 
Philosophy. As it is now taught, this science diners 
much from the logic of Aristotle and the ancient schools ; 
with them it was a tissue of subtleties and absurdities ; it 
taught to support both truth and error, furnishing arms 
alike to both. Amid the multiplicity of rules for the 
guidance of reason, reason herself seemed wholly to be 
lost sight of. It was like loading a warrior with armor, 
until crushed and buried beneath its weight. The ancient 
prejudices with respect to modes of reasoning, for a long 
time kept every science in a state of obscurity ; for on 
the free exercise of the reasoning power in man, depends 
every degree of improvement in scientific research ; in- 



logic. 2G5 

deed there can be no research when reason is fettered. 
Thus in attempting to foster and improve reason, she be- 
came bewildered and exhausted. As an illustration of 
the absurdities of the mode of reasoning encouraged by the 
logic of the schools, the following story has been related. 
' The son of an unlettered farmer, who had been sent to 
college for his education, returned to his father's house, 
puffed up with pride and expecting to astonish and em- 
barrass every one with the wonderful extent of his knowl- 
edge, and the sophistry which he had learned. Sitting 
one day at the breakfast table with his honest parents, 
the young pedant observing that there were but two 
eggs. " I can prove to you," says he, " that here are 
three eggs ; — here are owe, two ; now, father, will you not 
allow that one and two make three ? " The father could 
not refute the argument, although it contradicted the evi- 
dence of his senses ; but, taking one of the eggs himself, 
and giving the other to his wife, said, " As for you, my son, 
you may take the third, as a reward for your learning." ' 
The proper object of logic is to teach the operations 
of our minds, the method of reasoning and arrange- 
ment which is conformable to those laws, and to dis- 
tinguish truth from error. So far then from being an 
artificial science, logic ought to be a deduction from ob- 
servations made upon the nature and operations of the 
mind. It has been remarked that God did not make 
man, and leave Aristotle to complete this work, by giving 
him, as the ancients seemed to believe, the power of rea- 
soning. So blindly was the system of Aristotle followed, 
that, during the dark ages, in some parts of Europe, it 
was made a crime punishable with death, for a person to 
advance any opinion contrary to the doctrines of that 
philosopher. The art of reasoning, or the true logic, must 
have been coeval with the dawning of the human under- 
standing. When Adam gave names to the beasts of the 
field, the fowls of the air, and the fish of the sea, he ex- 
ercised the power of reasoning with as much propriety as 
any follower of Aristotle could have done, and probably 
with far less embarrassment. The latter would, in the 
first place, have needed to establish syllogistically the 
fact, that a beast was not a fowl, and that a fowl was not 
23 



%$6 LOGIC. 

a fish. He would have thought it necessary to decide 
whether there was, in reality, any such thing as classes of 
beings, such as we now call dogs, cats, horses, &c ; or 
whether putting certain beings in a class together, and 
giving them one common name, such as dog, &c. does 
not give them that relation to each other, which the mind 
considers as belonging to individuals of the same class. 

The ancient Realist would have gravely decided that 
we must, look into our minds for an image which should 
be the representative of any one genus, and must com- 
pare the real animal with the idea; thus the idea or image 
of a doer in our minds should be the standard to which all 
real animals which were to be included under the genus 
dog, must be found conformable. Plato and Aristotle 
were Realists. The Nominalist would have said that it 
was of no consequence what animals were called dogs, 
what were called cats, &c. — for by giving to any particu- 
lar number the same general name, we should learn to 
associate them in our own minds ; thus, when the word 
dog was called, we should think of other beings of the 
same name, although this resemblance in name was in 
fact the only relationship which the mind acknowledged 
between them. 

It does not appear that Adam was troubled with any 
of these logical subtleties, with respect to naming the an- 
imals. Endowed by his Creator with the power of per- 
ceiving resemblances, and probably having received also 
a knowledge of language, he had only to examine the dif- 
ferent created beings, in order to perceive at once cer- 
tain distinctive characters between the different families, 
and to give a general name to each family or genus. 
Whether the names which he gave were entirely arbitra- 
ty, or founded on some peculiarity of the animal, we do 
not know, though the latter appears a probable supposi- 
tion. For notwithstanding the many transformations 
which language has undergone we still perceive in many 
cases a resemblance in the sound of a word, and the an- 
imal which it denotes ; — thus snake, with the hissing 
sound of its consonants, and its drawling termination 
seems in some degree to suggest the being to which it is 
applied ; — the name bird seems indicative of a quick, 



logic. 267 

rushing through the air ; tiger seems to speak of ferocity, 
and lion of courage. How far our associated ideas may 
influence us to imagine these resemblances, we cannot 
well say ; though this circumstance should be taken into 
consideration. You may be ready to ask, of what use can 
it be to study logic, if it serves only to perplex and cloud 
the mind 1 We have already informed you that the true 
purpose of logic is to assist in the development of the 
reasoning powers, by rules drawn from observation and 
experience of the nature and operations of those powers. 
Logic is not to teach you to reason, for nature does this ; 
but it may assist you by pointing out those methods of 
study and investigation which people of reflection and 
observation have found to be most useful to themselves 
and others. Those who have studied any of the branches 
of natural science, particularly botany, have already been 
initiated into the principles of logical division and meth- 
od. Mathematical demonstration is but the constant 
practice of true logic, and the latter science will be to 
those of you who are familiar with such demonstrations, 
but a review of familiar principles and facts. 

Hedge's Logic has been selected as our text book in 
this study ; it contains the most useful principles of the 
science, and is little encumbered with the useless rubbish 
with which antiquity had loaded it. In recitations in this 
study, it is very difficult to change the language of your 
author in any great degree ; the precise word used in defi- 
nitions is here generally the very one which is needed, 
and the idea might be changed or obscured by attempt- 
ing to alter the mode of expression. While it shows a 
dull and mechanical mind for a pupil to be always confin- 
ed to the mere words of a text book, it is, on the other 
hand, a foolish affectation and pedantry to avoid with 
scrupulous care using any of an author's expressions, 
however fine or forcible they may be. You never need 
fear being suspected of learning by rote, when this is not 
the case. There is as much difference in the manner of 
recitation between one who understands what she says, 
and one who repeats words from memory merely, as be- 
tween the chattering of a parrot and the conversation of 
an intelligent person. The kindling of mind, the beam- 



268 logic. 

ing forth of intellect is never to be confounded with me- 
chanical effort. Before closing my observations upon the 
study of logic, I will read you a translation of some re- 
marks from a French work, entitled, ' Conseils D' un Pere 
Sur U Education Des Filles. * ' Teach your daughters 
to search for principles founded in truth and wisdom ; — 
teach them to contract the habit of ascertaining as far as 
possible, whether what they wish to do is conformable to 
both these ; — teach them to doubt upon all subjects that 
are not evident, but that when they have well examined 
the foundation, and are certain of the correctness of the 
reasoning founded upon a sure basis, they should then 
know how to stop. Teach them not to wander from this 
focus of light, but, keeping their eye fixed upon this point, 
render it a means of discovering any fluctuation in their 
future opinions or conduct. Correct principles are a port 
in the tempest ; they are an asylum against the attacks of 
error ; an inexhaustible fountain from whence the streams 
which flow are always pure; an unerring compass to 
whose guidance we can yield ourselves without fear. We 
are strong when our conduct has been regulated by the 
rules of truth and honesty. You are not called upon to 
prepare yourselves for the pulpit or the bar, though it is 
well for you to be capable of judging of the merits of 
those who do appear there ; and although you may not be 
called to proclaim your own opinions, you may have the 
satisfaction of enjoying in secret the pleasure of being 
able to judge and to appreciate the efforts of great minds. 
The logic which we wish you to possess, is not that which 
leads to argument, but to the regulation of thought ; that 
which shall enable you to establish rules for your own 
conduct. We would wish rather to perfect you in the art 
of thinking and judging, than in that of speaking ; or, in 
other words, we would have your knowledge made sub- 
servient to useful purposes, not to vanity or pedantry.' 

The same writer, remarking on the necessity of order 
in the train of thought, says, ' I had scribbled long, before 
I knew how to write : I had a tumultuous abundance of 
ideas ; they flowed from my pen with great facility : let- 

* Counsels of a Father upon the Education of Daughters. 



MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 269 

ters cost me no effort ; but when I came to treat upon se- 
rious and complicated subjects, I was confused, I felt that 
my reasoning had not that tout ensemble, that connexion 
which characterizes energy and clearness. My discours- 
es were but a collection of incoherent observations, of 
isolated reflections, of which I could never endure the 
second reading. Ah, how many manuscripts have I not 
destroyed in impatience and discouragement ! At length 
a ray of light dawned upon my mind — before beginning 
to develope a subject, I traced my plan ; T did as the arch- 
itect who determines the proportions of a building before 
laying a single stone, and from thence, all difficulties in 
composition disappeared ! 

" From this sincere acknowledgement,' continues the 
same author ' you may form an idea of the importance 
of method in the art of reasoning. Principles are the 
base and the fulcrum of every work, method is the lever, 
and analysis the proof. "* Is not then a rational and just 
logic a treasure? Is it not as valuable for woman as for 
man, since the government of her thoughts, and the reg- 
ulation of her conduct is of equal importance? 

Moral Philosophy. 

Moral Philosophy is addressed both to the heart and un- 
derstanding. It should commence in the earliest years 
of childhood, as soon as the little being destined to immor- 
tality begins to entertain ideas of right and wrong. 
There is a period preceding this, when the child is to be 
governed wholly by a feeling of instinctive obedience. It 
sees itself in the hands of its parents, knows that they 
have power over it, and learns to submit its will to theirs. 
But as soon as the child begins to exercise its reason, as 
soon as the moral feeling begins to unfold, (we are here 
assuming the existence of a principle which some moral- 
ists or rather immoralists deny) then should its moral 
education commence. It should be taught that the pa- 
rent does not exact obedience because he has power to 
do it, but because it is right, because the parent has ex- 
perience and knows what is best. If one child take from 

23* 



270 MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

another its toys, because it has greater physical strength, 
it should be taught that 'power does not make right, and 
that it is wrong in any case to take what belongs to 
another, without the owner's consent. 

Thus should children, from the dawning of reason, be 
accustomed to reflect upon the moral relations of actions. 
The science of Moral Philosophy, as laid down in books 
is but a collection of those rules and principles which are 
considered as the proper guides of moral conduct, and 
which in their simple forms should be thus taught to 
children. The work of Dr. Paley, although liable to some 
objections, yet retains its place in most public institu- 
tions. It possesses merits of a kind very important in a 
school book ; the style is clear and simple, the method 
of arrangement calculated to aid the memory, and the 
reasoning is generally precise and logical. The chap- 
ter on the moral sense does not appear to me to state the 
subject fairly, or to give to the argument that bearing 
which religion, morality and experience point out. 

Consider man as destitute of an original moral feeling 
(the term sense is perhaps an objectionable one) and how 
can he be considered an accountable being ? Is it not 
this very feeling, implanted by God in the human heart, 
which renders man a moral agent? Is not this moral 
feeling the foundation of all our ideas of right and 
wrong? If right depend on custom, law, the will of a 
sovereign, or of a majority, where is our standard? Dr. 
Paley would say, the revealed will of God. But if we have 
no natural feeling of rectitude, why should we think it right 
to render obedience to our Creator ? This question is thus 
answered by Paley : c We believe that God can reward or 
punish us, that he will do this in proportion to our obe- 
dience or disobedience, therefore we will comply with 
his will for the sake of the reward.' 

But how is it with the Creator himself? Are his 
acts good, because he is powerful ; or rather, is there not 
such a thing as a principle of goodness, of which God is 
the fountain, and which, when he created man in his 
own image, was imparted as the vital principle of the 
human soul ? This soul, although corrupted by the fall, 
still retains a portion of its divine principle, which, even 



INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 271 

in the most debased condition of mortals, discovers it- 
self by the remorse and shame which follow vice. With 
the exception of what I consider Dr. Paley's erroneous 
ideas lespecting the want of an original moral princi- 
ple, and the necessary consequences from this which 
appear in his definition of ' virtue, right and wrong/ 
&c, I regard his Moral Philosophy as a work of great 
merit and utility. His views of the sabbath are how- 
ever far from being admitted by all Christians ; most of 
whom believe that the Christian sabbath is a continua- 
tion of, and substitution for the Jewish sabbath, and that 
we are under the same obligation to regard the fourth 
commandment as the other nine. Dr. Paley considers 
it expedient and proper to observe the sabbath by attend- 
ing public worship on that day, and devoting as much time 
as possible to spiritual exercises ; but he does not regard 
the hallowing of the Lord's day as enforced by a com- 
mand. 

Parkhurst's Moral Philosophy is designed to correct 
some of the supposed errors of Paley. This is a work of 
much merit, and may be read with advantage by pupils 
in this study. In our moral department we shall con- 
sider the importance of developing and fortifying the 
moral emotion, and also its connexion with our duties 
towards our Maker. 

Intellectual Philosophy . 

With some remarks on the Philosophy of mind, I shall 
close my lectures on Intellectual Improvement. This 
science, although itself the main spring in education, is 
very properly, as a department of study, the crowning of 
the whole. It commences with some knowledge of the 
operations of the mind, and is acquired in the first years of 
life. The child learns to know the opinions and emotions 
of those around him, by means of external signs; and 
he must have reasoned upon associated feelings be- 
fore he can have known how to move compassion by his 
cries, or excite laughter by his playful gambols. Every 
year of life increases his knowledge of mind ; he feels 
himself urged by motives, he perceives a controlling 



272 INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 

power in himself, when he chooses to exert it to stop 
the headlong current of the passions, or to direct them 
into new and better channels. All observations upon our 
own characters or those of others belong to mental phi- 
losophy ; this is the most valuable, or the practical part. 

When therefore you commence this study in books, 
you continually meet with your own familiar thoughts. 
You had often observed in yourself the power of re- 
calling one thing by the help of others. For instance, 
when you had entered an apartment for the purpose 
of finding some article, you perhaps found that you had 
forgotten what you went for ; you were unable by any 
effort of memory to recal the lost idea, but by return- 
ing to the place from whence you set out, were remind- 
ed of it by its connexion with other objects. You may 
not have formed any theory of the principle of association, 
and are therefore prepared to listen with attention to any 
explanation of phenomena which are a part of the histo- 
ry of your own thoughts. 

Mankind, who are ever prone to excesses, have, from a 
period in which the study of the human mind was deem- 
ed above the comprehension of females, and unsuitable 
to their condition and character, gone to another ex- 
treme in which the science of metaphysics is considered 
little more than a plaything for children ; and young misses 
who have neither yet learned to think methodically or 
reason accurately, are heard to talk learnedly of the opin- 
ions of Locke, Stewart and Brown. 

Some of the elementary principles in the science of 
mind, as the distinct nature and different destinations of 
the soul and body, the superior importance of the spirit- 
ual part, and the child's obligations to improve his men- 
tal faculties, ought early to be pointed out. Such works 
as the Child's Book on the Soul,* which, in language 
adapted to the capacities of children, leads them to re- 
flect on the nature and operations of the mind, cannot 
be too highly valued by parents and instructers. These 
truths form the foundation of all religious knowledge 

* B\ Mr. Gallaudet. This little book ought to be found in all 
Sunday school libraries. 



INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 273 

and belief; a belief in them is anterior even to the idea 
of a Creator. When the child in answer to the question, 
* Who made you?' replies 'God,' he must comprehend 
the truth, that there is a being whom he calls himself, 
that this being is a something, unlike a stone or a plant, 
neither of which, he knows, could understand or answer 
a question. 

Although some of the leading distinctions between 
matter and mind should be taught even to children, I 
cannot agree with those who recommend the study of 
metaphysics as a preliminary step in education, on the 
ground that pupils must be made to understand the na- 
ture of the mind; because that in education, this is both 
the instrument with which the operation is carried on, 
and the object which is operated upon. 

We might as well insist that a boy was not qualified to 
be put an apprentice to a carpenter, without a knowledge 
of the principles on which the lever and other mechani- 
cal powers operate ; in short, without understanding the 
theory of mechanics. If a child could not compare, rea- 
son or remember until he first understood the powers of 
his own mind, and the abstract nature of comparison, rea- 
soning, &c, these operations could never be performed ; 
for the very study of them requires their constant exer- 
cise, and an exercise rendered skilful by long practice. 
If the writings of Stewart or Brown are put into the hands 
of pupils whose minds are not ripe for such investigations, 
the truths and reasonings cannot be comprehended, and 
a rooted dislike will, probably, be acquired for the 
study of mental philosophy. But if the mind has been 
previously prepared by suitable discipline, enriched by a 
knowledge of language, of history, and of natural science, 
so that illustrations drawn from these various sources, may 
be comprehended and enjoyed, then will the science of 
mind be drank in with a new and enthusiastic delight. Of- 
ten have I* with sympathising enjoyment watched the kin- 

* The author, during several years, had charge of the depart- 
ment of intellectual philosophy in the Troy Female Seminary, 
during which time she had the happiness of instructing many 
young ladies of distinguished talents and virtues, who now hold 
a high rank in society, and honorably sustain the various rela- 



274 INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 

dling glow lighting up the countenance of such a pupil, on 
hearing for the first time an explanation of some familiar 
operation of her own mind, or when tracing the map of 
the human intellect, she beheld the innumerable little 
rills which flow into the great ocean of thought, and traced 
them to their mysterious fountain, mind. The sub- 
lime truths of the science enter the soul in all their 
freshness and beauty ; and this era in the history of her 
own mind is ever remembered with deep and peculiar 
interest. 

I would not be understood as asserting that in the 
study of mental philosophy, the way is invariably strewed 
with flowers; or that the pupil is always rewarded by 
the pleasure of eliciting truth. In no other science is 
there such a tendency in authors to wander into the 
mazy regions of hypothesis — fancying that a new ray of 
light has fallen upon their path, they often begin to see 
things in a different aspect from their predecessors ; and 
although this new light may be but the coruscation of a 
brilliant fancy, the hues which it imparts are looked up* 
on as so many revelations made by the torch of reason. 
Thus have metaphysicians been liable to be misled by 
false lights, ever since the days of Aristotle, who asserted 
that the mind resided in the brain, which was a dark cave 
filled with miniature images, called thoughts, that came 
forward for the inspection of consciousness, as they were 
called up by memory, and retreated as they were dis- 
missed by abstraction. 

Since the time of Locke, metaphysical writers, follow- 
ing his example, have made the operations of the mind 
or its faculties, and not its nature or essence, the object 
of their investigations. These operations are known to 
us but in two ways, experience and observation, every- 

tions of life. Not a few are among 1 that class, who are fulfilling 
one of the noblest and most important offices of life, that of teach- 
ing the young; while others are exemplifying in the domestic cir- 
cle the beneficial influence of educated women upon human virtue 
and happiness. When these pages shall meet the affectionate 
glance of some of those whose memory is thus dearly cherished, 
the eye will glisten and the cheek glow at the recollection of 
former school-day scenes, of companions once beloved, and, it may 
be, of her who watched over their intellectual progress, with ma- 
ternal pride and anxiety. 



INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOFHY. 275 

thing gained by these sources is an addition to the stock 
of human knowledge ; the great point is to know how 
to seize upon facts, and embody them in a manner to be 
intelligible to ourselves and others. Facts, in order to 
be useful in science, must also be properly arranged ; and 
the difficulty with most minds, is the want of a suitable 
mode of arrangement. 

Logic and criticism are instruments which teach the 
arts of thinking and of arranging thoughts : metaphysics 
is the science of principles, it instructs man in the na- 
ture and use of his faculties ; it discovers to him his weak- 
ness, but at the same time shows him his strength ; it ac- 
quaints him with the extent of his reasoning powers, and 
that although by these he may know many things, there 
is a barrier beyond which he cannot pass. In this sci- 
ence we learn to set bounds to the influence of human 
authority upon the mind, and that no truths, however 
strongly urged, should be received, but such as have a 
claim to our belief, founded upon reason. The reason of 
each individual, must be his own guide ; and it therefore 
becomes a matter of great importance that reason shall, 
as far as possible be divested of prejudice, and assisted 
with fixed and unerring principles. 

In speaking of the influence of reason in matters of 
belief, I would here observe, with respect to Divine 
revelation, that after we have, by weighing its evidences, 
become convinced that it is in fact what it professes to be, 
the word of God, that it is impossible to resist the unit- 
ed testimony of collateral history, prophecy, the evidence 
of a multitude of competent witnesses, and the evidence 
of effects now before our eyes, viz. thousands of worship- 
ping assemblies calling on Jesus of Nazareth, and break- 
ing bread in commemoration of his sufferings — after we 
have become convinced that any one of these evidences 
would be sufficient to establish their authenticity, and 
that this concurring testimony furnishes a mass of evi- 
dence which it is impossible for reason to resist or deny, 
we must then fully and unreservedly receive the Scrip- 
tures as the word of God. Are these writings sometimes 
mysterious and unintelligible to us ? So is the moral 
government of God, so are the dispensations of his provi- 



276 INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 

dence ; — are the truths revealed Of a nature which human 
reason cannot fathom ? So are many of the facts in the 
natural world, — but do we deny the influence of that vital 
principle which is the spring and source of organic life, 
because it is invisible to us? We see its effects and 
therefore believe in the cause. Shall we deny the opera- 
tion of the Holy Spirit upon the human heart, because 
' it is a still, small voice, and we cannot tell whence it 
cometh, or whither it goeth 1 ' We see the wicked man 
turning from his evil ways, the proud becoming meek ; the 
drunkard, temperate, the churl, liberal, he who once scoff- 
ed at religion sitting at Jesus' feet — and shall we deny that 
these effects are uncaused, because we cannot explain 
them by deductions from humnn reason 1 Let us exalt 
human reason to its proper rank, let us walk by its light 
when we have none clearer ; but let us remember too that 
He who gave man reason, and who ' seeth not as man 
sees,' is to be believed and obeyed without question as to 
the propriety or expediency of his commands. 

In all matters of human knowledge and belief, reason 
must be our guide : when we find a subject to be beyond 
our capacity we should cease to investigate. Plutarch ob- 
served that as geographers, when they have laid down up- 
on their map those countries which are known, place be- 
yond these their terra incognita or unknown lands and 
seas, so historians should use the same distinction with 
respect to the fabulous and uncertain ages of the world. 
Thus should we in all our researches endeavor to distin- 
guish the boundary which divides the legitimate subjects 
of human inquiry, from what is beyond the knowledge 
of man. 

No farther than perception will carry us, can we go in 
any human science ; as discoveries are made, perception 
is aided and rendered more acute ; thus the telescope 
has brought the planetary worlds nearer to us and re- 
vealed new facts with respect to them, which are added 
to the science of astronomy ; — the microscope has acquaint- 
ed man with new wonders in the kingdoms of nature, 
shewing him, where vision had not before discovered 
life, that millions of living things exist, which we inhale 
with the atmosphere, and drink in the purest water ; that 



INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 277 

these animalculae inhabit every leaf, fruit and flower; and 
some late discoveries would almost prove, that our own 
material frame is but a mass of living atoms. Wherever 
observations can be made, is a field for human inquiry. 
But all questions are profitless, which relate 10 infinitude, 
as infinite space and eternity ; to the connexion between 
matter and mind, and to their essence; the inhabitants of 
other worlds, and everything connected with a future 
state, except as revealed in the word of God. All sub- 
jects of this nature, should be considered by metaphysi- 
cians as ' unknown lands and unapproachable seas. 

It is important that you should all understand definite- 
ly, the end and aim of the studies you pursue. Mental 
philosophy would be of little use, had it not its practical 
applications. The members of this class profess to study 
the human mind ; suppose hereafter, any one of you 
in promiscuous society should unseasonably introduce 
your knowledge, talk fluently of the opinions of Brown 
and Stewart, or even give the result of your own profound 
reflections, would this show that you practically under- 
stood the human mind, or, as it is more commonly ex- 
pressed, human nature ? It is to be presumed you would 
all wish to please, when this can be done without any 
sacrifice of principle; that you would not willingly dis- 
gust others, or acquire the reputation of being pedan- 
tic. A knowledge of the operations of the mind, 
should lead you to consider what kind of manners 
will produce the effect you desire, should teach that 
vanity, by leading you to make a foolish display of learn- 
ing, would defeat its own end, so that instead of adrni- 
ration, you would excite disgust. Perhaps this cau- 
tion is unnecessary, as there are now so many educated 
females, that there is little temptation for any one to be 
vain of her learning; the effect which Hannah More an- 
ticipated as the result of more enlarged systems of edu- 
cation is now realized. A female possessing a cultivated 
mind, is no longer regarded as a prodigy, and we have 
far less of les bas bleus than formerly. Slip-shod feet, 
dirty caps and gowns, have ceased to be regarded as the 
characteristics of a literary woman ; who is now allow- 
ed to dress herself neatly, after the fashion of the day, 
24 



278 INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 

and to enjoy the social pleasures of life like others of her 
species. Indeed, so far is literature, at the present time, 
from being a reproach to a lady, so far from lowering her 
in the estimation of others, that when displayed at proper 
times, and in a proper manner, it. adds greatly to her in- 
fluence and respectability in society. 

But there is always a degree of delicacy expected from 
it lady in the use of her acquirements, which should be 
understood and regarded. The effect of these acquire- 
ments, as I have often remarked, should be exhibited in 
the general character and depoitment, the methodical ar- 
rangement of time, richness, ease, and variety of conver- 
sation, and in short the power of adapting one's self to the 
changing circumstances of life, and of fulfilling its many 
and varied duties. A practical knowledge of the human 
mind is peculiarly important to our sex ; it is a knowledge 
which they have ever been quick to seize ; the great vol- 
ume of life, woman reads with facility ; — mingling in socie- 
ty she soon learns the art of pleasing, adapts herself to its 
prevailing taste and manners, or rather learns to lead its 
taste and influence its manners. The French women have, 
at different times, exercised great power over the minds 
of kings and statesmen; they have often, though behind 
the scenes, been the real actors in the drama of life, 
while those who fancied themselves the actors were in 
fact but automatons, moving in a prescribed circle, and 
accomplishing the designs of those who led them. But 
how, in many instances, was this influence acquired, and 
how was it exerted 1 — Who aie among the celebrated wo- 
men, from Aspasia of Athens, to Madam Pompadour, of 
France, that have been distinguished for their power over 
the other sex? My pupils, they were those who sacrifice 
ed virtue and self respect ; and who sought, in the tri* 
umphs which announced their own degradation, to stifle 
its remembrance. 

But these wanderers from the path of true dignity and 
of virtue, had not the advantages of a consistent and 
moral education. Aspasia, it is true, lived in the age of 
Athenian glory, and was deeply imbued with Grecian 
learning, but she had not the pure light of the gospel ; 



INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 279 

and the high rank which she held among the Greek phi- 
losophers, notwithstanding the licentiousness of her con- 
duct, show us the actual value of heathen morality. 

I remarked that women are quick to learn the opera- 
tions of the human mind, by observations on society: but 
this does not preclude the utility of well-chosen books, 
and of systematic instruction ; on the contrary, it ren- 
ders them more important, by giving their knowledge 
and tact a right direction. Without such aids, females 
are too apt to exercise their ingenuity in petty attempts 
to extend their empire over others, from the mere influ- 
ence of external charms or fascinating manners ; with 
more elevated views, they learn to value only the influ- 
ence which is gained by the charms of intellect and the 
dignity of virtue. 

A just and practical knowledge of the human mind is 
highly important to woman in the several relations of life, 
domestic and social ; more especially docs the mother and 
the instructor of youth, need to understand the avenues 
and secret windings of the human heart, to be able to 
read the thoughts, and to direct them into their proper 
channel. Mr. Stewart remarks, ' the object of education 
should be, first, to cultivate the various faculties of our 
nature ; second, to watch over early impressions and asso- 
ciations, to secure the mind against the influence of 
error, and to lead its prepossessions on the side of truth.' 
This science also may have a very important influence, 
upon our own moral and mental improvement ; or, accord- 
ing to Stewart, every person on arriving to years of re- 
flection, perceives in himself defects owing to some mis- 
management in education, and knowing the laws of his 
own mind, he feels the necessity of beginning a course 
for himself 

This self-education is, after all, the great business of 
life ; it is in order to enable the young to discipline their 
own minds, to detect the errors in their own conduct, 
and the latent evils in their own hearts, that for so 
many years they are disciplined and taught by others. 
The sooner this lesson of self-education is learned, the 
sooner do the young assume the dignity of rational 
beings, and become fitted to be their own guardians. In 



280 ACCOMPLISHMENTS. 

reading the biography of eminent persons, we find that 
they were always strict in their self-requisitions and 
self-government. They observed themselves closely, 
and when they found a bias towards any particular fault 
or weakness, they directed their efforts towards correct- 
ins the one, and strengthening the other. 

I would again urge the importance of keeping a diary, 
in which the moral tenor of your actions and the bent of 
your minds should be scrupulously noted. This journal 
should be for your own inspection only ; for such is the 
deceitfulness of the human heart, that it is very apt to 
suggest a too flattering picture of itself, where it is 
made with the design of being seen by any but the 
original. 

' Man, know thyself,' is a precept as important as it is 
difficult in practice. To assist us in this duty, no science 
is more highly beneficial than that which has the human 
mind for its object, and yet unless we add to our philoso- 
phy the wisdom of true piety, we shall never fully 
comprehend the extent of human depravity, the true 
mode of purifying the heart, and rendering it meet for 
an offering to its Creator. 



LECTURE XXII. 

Accomplishments. — Music — Dancing — Drawing. 

We have now completed our view of the various 
branches of literary and scientific education, which con- 
stitute a course of instruction in the institution of which 
you are members. We have considered them all under the 
general head of Intellectual Improvement. 

It has been my wish to give sketches of these subjects, 
which, though neither perfect in outline, or minute in 
particulars, might, as graphic delineations, serve to fix 
their leading features upon the tablets of the mind. 



ACCOMPLISHMENTS. 281 

The chief object in the attainment of what are called 
accomplishments , ought to be to soften and refine the 
manners, and add to the innocent and elegant enjoy- 
ments of human life. I shall not at present dwell upon 
the subject of female manners and deportment, except as 
this may be connected with that of accomplishments. 

In some of these, as music and drawing, the physical 
and intellectual powers, and the emotions are all exercis- 
ed. Dancing is to be considered chiefly in reference to 
its effects on the motions and carriage of the body, 
although as a pleasant and exhilerating exercise, it 
may be made conducive to the promotion of cheerfulness 
and good humor. 

Female manners cannot be taught with didactic pre- 
cision, under any given number of rules. There is 
a certain nameless grace in fine manners, which it is 
impossible to describe, and which cannot be traced to 
any one source. They are the result of education, in- 
tercourse with refined society, and that general benevo- 
lence which wishes to please, not from the impulse of 
vanity, but because it finds its own happiness in mak- 
ing that of others. The manners acquired at board- 
ing schools are often, and not without reason, made the 
subject of severe remark. One writer says, ' Boarding 
schools give us artificial creatures, made up of artificial 
looks and smiles ; their airs, gestures and articulation 
are all a compound of affectation. Such schools give 
forwardness to fruits, but deprive them of their natural 
healthiness and flavor, and the fine ladies they send into 
the world feel themselves ridiculously exalted above 
all sensible conversation, or all attempts to be useful.' 

Although the author just quoted appears to have 
indulged in too indiscriminate a condemnation of all 
boarding schools, we cannot but admit that he has 
drawn a correct likeness of many of the finished young 
ladies of the present day. To a sensible and elevated 
mind, nothing can appear more ridiculous and con- 
temptible than the airs which are sometimes assum- 
ed by young ladies on leaving school, and making their 
entree, into the world of fashion. The cause of this 
exhibition of folly and affectation may often be traced 
24* 



282 ACCOMPLISHMENTS. 

to early associations, acquired under the paternal roof, 
and confirmed by a defective mode of education. 

The inlluence of maternal character is strikingly 
manifested in the associations of the child. A young 
girl who observes that show and fashion are the chief 
concern of her mother's life, very naturally acquires 
the habit of regarding these things as of the highest 
importance. She leains that to play and sing well, to 
possess a fashionable air and manner are to be her pass- 
ports into the world of fashion, which she believes is the 
true paradise of life. Her young bosom heaves with 
tumultuous agitation at the thought of that period when 
she shall be brought out or become a young lady, be 
entitled to coquette, to prattle nonsense, and play off the 
airs which she has learned to consider the test of an 
elite of fashion ; — with such prepossessions she is sent 
abroad to a boarding school, and with the avowed object, 
on the part of the parents, that she may become finished, 
or may, in a degree, perfect herself, in certain elegant 
accomplishments. The inquiry on the part of such 
parents with respect to the character of a school, is not, 
what course of mental discipline is there pursued, 
what is the tone of moral instruction, or the standard of 
intellectual attainments ; but what attention is paid to 
accomplishments, and what are the advantages for learn- 
ing music, dancing, &,c. 

What must be expected from the daughters of such 
parents, after the completion of an education in a school 
conformable to their own false ideas of merit ? If young 
ladies enter life fitted only for its gay scenes, what is 
to be their future destiny, even in this world 1 So far 
are festive scenes from making up the whole of life, that 
even in the most prosperous condition of human exist- 
ence, there is more of sorrow than joy, more of mourn- 
ing than mirth. It has been observed by the good 
Hannah More, that from the course pursued by many 
with respect to the education of their daughters, one 
might, reasoning a priori, be led to infer that the life of 
women consisted of one universal holiday, and that the 
only contest was, who should be best enabled to excel 
in the sports and games that were to be celebrated in it. 



music. 283 

Now it is this very idea of the great importance of ac- 
complishments which causes so much vanity and affecta- 
tion among females. Did they, for instance, regard 
music merely as an agreeable and refined amusement, 
which would enable them to add something to the enjoy- 
ments of their friends, as well as afford pleasure to 
themselves, we should not see so much parade and flut- 
tering when a young lady is requested to sing or play 
in company. The very idea that her performance is a 
matter of great moment, the expectation of the admira- 
tion she shall receive, or the fear of mortification, all 
serve to render her manner constrained and unnatural ; 
add to this, a habit of affectation already acquired, and 
we have the picture of many a young lady exhibiting her- 
self to the pain and mortification of all sensible and truly 
elevated people. 

Let music, and other elegant accomplishments, take 
their proper rank ; they are pleasant, as interludes ^in 
the great drama of life's duties. If an actor in an 
inferior part should fancy himself the hero, and snuff 
the candles or perform any other trifling service as 
though it were an affair of the first importance, the be- 
holders would consider it ludicrous; so to a reflecting 
mind appears the manner of those who seem to think 
the singing of a song, or playing an air on the harp or 
piano an occasion of the deepest interest. A long pre- 
lude of hesitation, apologies and denials, must prepare 
the minds of the company for the great event ; and in 
many cases the result of this preparation, is the inter- 
ruption of all sensible conversation for a very indifferent 
or affected performance. 

A young lady's appearance in conversation, is far 
more important, as developing her intellectual attain- 
ments, than any musical performance can be, and yet 
few would refuse to enter into conversation, through 
consternation at the idea that they might not be admired 
if they did speak. We do not expect the dumb to speak, 
neither can a lady ignorant of music perform for the 
gratification of her friends ; but one who possesses this 
accomplishment, should no more refuse to exercise it at 
proper times, than another who can speak should refuse to 



284 music. 

enter into conversation. The great point is to have just 
and enlarged ideas of the real importance of actions and 
things, that we may not attach undue importance to tri- 
fles. If a young lady who is known to have some skill 
in music, after modestly stating her own deiiciences, 
performs but indifferently, she has at least shown an 
amiable, obliging disposition in complying with the 
wishes of others, and in many cases such instances have 
made lasting impressions favorable to the character of a 
person. If another young lady shows herself off with an 
air of vanity and self-satisfaction, however fine or scien- 
tific her performance, she has left no pleasant remem- 
brances of herself in the minds of the beholders. And 
even without any disqualifying circumstances, of what 
use. are the first musical talents as respects the great bu- 
siness of life, or as the foundation of a character ? The 
stage probably affords finer specimens of musical talent 
than any private circles, and yet how wretched and de- 
praved have been some of the most distinguished of its 
votaries ! at the best, how low is their station in society, 
and how little do they contribute to the real well-be- 
ing of mankind ! 

A French lady of distinguished talents, elegant man- 
ners, and the instructer of queens and princesses,* in 
remarking upon female character and the influence of 
mothers upon the associated feelings and the principles 
of their daughters, says, ' Honored be the mother, who, 
in bringing up her daughter, is not actuated by the sole 
desire of rendering her fascinating ; who secures to her a 
durable good in the cultivation of her judgment, and in 
the enlightening of her mind; who accustoms her to pi e- 
fer duty to pleasure, knowledge to amusement; who 
teaches her to be learned without pedantry, and graceful 
without affectation. Then will this daughter be wise 
without vanity, happy without witnesses, and contented 
without admirers.' 

As an elegant accomplishment, and a resource against 
adversity, music may well be considered a desirable 
branch of education, if circumstances permit its attain- 

* Madame Campan. 



music. *285 

ment. This science may also be cultivated without any 
detriment to mental improvement, since, during the time 
devoted to it, the mind is agreeably relaxed, and the 
physical powers are called into action. One or two 
hours each day, devoted to practice on any instrument 
of music, besides the usual time spent in receiving les- 
sons, will, if faithfully improved, soon produce a manifest 
improvement ; if this course is pursued with persevering 
industry, for some length of time, a young lady may per- 
form upon the piano or harp with skill and execution. 

But I cannot avoid considering that parent or instruct- 
er as deeply guilty, who urges a child to spend the greater 
part of a day in thrumming upon an instrument, leaving 
the mind to grow rank with the weeds which will spring 
up where the intellectual powers are not cultivated, and 
suffering an immortal being to grow up to maturity with- 
out that mental and moral culture, which are so impor- 
tant both for this world and for eternity. What can we 
think of that father, who compelled a daughter for seve- 
ral years to practise twelve hours a day upon the piano, 
and occasionally stood over her with a whip, to urge her 
efforts. The young lady indeed became a great proficient 
in music ; she appeared with eclat at public places, and 
was the seven days wonder of the fashionable world. 
But she failed to make that splendid connexion in life 
for which it was supposed the father designed for her ; 
for, though flattered and caressed by many, it did not ap- 
pear that any gentleman of fortune thought that the 
highest perfection in music, was sufficient in a wife to 
atone for the want of more common though more neces- 
sary qualifications.* 

You will not understand me as depreciating music, or 
encouraging its neglect. Those who possess a native 
talent for this delightful art, and whose circumstances 
render its cultivation proper, should, as I before remark- 
ed, improve the opportunity of acquiring it. When com- 
menced, music should be assiduously pursued ; it requires 
much patience and practice, to become even a* tolerable 

* The case here mentioned is one of real life, and which oc- 
curred in our own country. 



286 music. 

proficient. A pupil should not only endeavor to acquire 
skill and taste in execution, but to understand the science 
and to comprehend the principles on which it is founded. 
It is important that those who are to learn music should 
commence the study while young ; at this time the fingers 
are pliant, and can easily accommodate themselves to ex- 
ercises which are found very difficult by older persons. At 
a period, too, when the faculties of the understanding 
are but partially developed, there is not that necessity for 
the full appropriation of time in study, which is after- 
wards required in the pursuit of the different branches of 
education. 

Madame Campan well remarks, that ' the many hours 
which a young girl devotes to the instrument would be 
much regretted, if they did not procure her a genuine 
talent for life. We hear it often remarked, that a young 
person as soon as she is married, shuts her piano, which 
becomes merely a useless piece of furniture : this is true, 
when it recals only the melancholy recollection of a cul- 
ture without fruit. If by means of repeated lessons, 
chidings and tears, she is able to play some sonatas 
which have never contributed to her pleasure, nor that 
of others, is it not very natural that she should free her- 
self from this restraint, as soon as she can follow her own 
inclination V But if a lady can read music, and has en- 
tered with any degree of enthusiasm into the delights 
which it affords, she will never be likely wholly to aban- 
don an exercise in which all the emotions find an answer- 
ing expression. 

In joy and sorrow, hope and despondency, the swell- 
ing heart may find vent in sprightly or melancholy 
strains of music. I recollect an elderly and very amia- 
ble foreigner, whose cara sposa was not of the sweet- 
est temper imaginable, who always resorted to the pia- 
no, after a storm of female vengeance had burst upon 
his head. This instrument seemed as a faithful friend 
which gave out no other tones but such as were re- 
spondent to his own feelings. And since females, though 
sometimes the aggressors, are more frequently the 
aggrieved party in domestic discords, music might be 
improved by them to a similar purpose. Indeed, music 



music. 287 

if cultivated and practised by a married lady with the 
view to her amusement and improvement, must have a 
tendency, not only to console her in trouble, but to soften 
and elevate the tone of her mind, and to smooth the as- 
perities of her own temper. 

Vocal music is far from being the artificial thing which 
amateurs of the present day would represent it. The 
birds have no Italian masters, and yet even the tnJls ol the 
most scientific performers are far inferior to some of theirs. 
It has been proposed to introduce vocal music into common 
schools, as one of the ordinary exercises. A gentleman 
who has travelled much in Europe,* states that in Germa- 
ny and Switzerland, music both in theory and practice is 
regularly taught as an important branch in the national 
system of education. He says that a distinguished pro- 
fessor of the island of Sicily on hearing of the unhappy 
influence of study upon the health of our literary men, 
asked, ' What are the amusements of your literary men?' 
When answered none, — the professor said ' No wonder 
they are sick, and die of study,' — observing that he spent 
a stated portion of the day in recreations, of which in- 
strumental and vocal music were an essential part, and 
that he thought he could not live without the relief which 
they gave his mind. 

While speaking on the subject of vocal music, I can- 
not but deprecate the improper character of most of 
the popular songs of the day. Young ladies are oft- 
en heard to express in singing, sentiments that they 
would blush to utter in conversation ; or, if there is 
nothing absolutely wrong in the thought, the words 
set to fashionable music are usually without sentiment or 
moral. The beautiful and chaste songs of Mrs. Hemans 
are a noble exception ; everything that comes from her 
pen is pure, and bears the image and superscription of 
an elevated and chastened mind. The plaintive and 
thrilling air of her ' Bring Flowers,' the spirit stirring 
' Pilgrim Fathers,' and the wail of the ' Captive 
Knight,' are only equalled by some of the noble efforts 
of Heber. 

* Rev. W. C. Woodbridge. 



288 music. 

Has America no Hemans, who will awaken a sleeping 
lyre in behalf of her young sisters, to give them songs, 
which, ins.ead of soiling the purity of their yet unpollu- 
ted hearts, may enlist their associations and affections 
in the cause of virtue? Have we no Heber, whose 
lips, touched with hallowed fire, may warble forth 
strains which shall waft the spirit above the mist and 
darkness of earth-born passions, and teach it to soar in 
the regions of a pure love and holy devotion 1 Alas, 
fashion's seal must first be set upon the noblest and 
purest efforts of human genius, before it can gain access 
to the temples where she is worshipped ; — and we are led 
to wonder that she has even deigned to accept offerings 
as pure and holy as those which have emanated from the 
spirits of Mrs. Hemans and Bishop Heber. 

To her whose heart beats high with the hope of admi- 
ration in the circles of fashion, and who has no object 
beyond that of receiving this admit ation, to the gay and 
thoughtless girl who counts each day a weariness till she 
shall be released from intellectual labor, from regularity 
in dutv and in conduct, who feels that she is about to 
realize in coming scenes of amusement, those visions 
of earthly bliss which had been impressed upon her 
almost infant mind, — to such an one it would be use- 
less to say, Let not fashion, let not the popular taste se- 
duce you from the straight and narrow path of female del- 
icacy and prosperity. Alas ! such warnings are vain, 
such admonitions are powerless, where the heart's af- 
fections are already, in imagination, poured out at the 
shrine of fashion, that destroyer of woman's purity of 
heart, and simplicity of taste and of character. 

But, suffer me to hope, that few of you will thus leave 
these retreats, where female virtues have been assiduous- 
ly cultivated, where female influence has been so often ex- 
plained, where female duties have been enforced, and the 
female mind has risen to n<;w light and life ! — Suffer me 
to hope, that not one of you after all this, will leave this 
sanctuary to go forth into the world, thoughtless as the 
giddy insect, which rushes into the consuming flame. It 
is your duty and your right, to take upon the stage of 
life a standing, dignified as your rank, fortune, talents 



music. 289 

and accomplishments, entitle you to, but forbear to lend 
your countenance to folly or vice, however elegant or 
fascinating they may appear. 

My remarks on the study of music have been some- 
what desultory ; and suggestions connected with the 
subject have drawn me aside from some remarks which 
I would make before leaving this topic. 

Be lore commencing this branch of education, re- 
flect whether you have a natural taste for it, and 
whether this accomplishment is correspondent to your 
means and condition. If in your own judgment ar\d 
that of your friends all these things are considered favor- 
ble, commence music with the resolution of becoming 
a proficient in it. Consider it as a means of improving 
your taste, and giving refinement and delicacy to your 
emotions. As a science it has its intellectual depart- 
ment ; it assists in the perfection of the physical organs, 
particularly in educating the car to a nice discrimination 
of sounds, and may do much towards forming a correct 
habit of reading. 

It will be a resource in adversity, will enable you to 
enliven domestic scenes; and should you be mothers, it 
will render you capable of instructing your children, or 
at least of knowing when they are well instructed. 
The highest and noblest object of music is to employ it 
in the service and to the praise of our Maker. The 
blessed in heaven are represented as singing to golden 
harps the glories of redeeming love. It is melancholy 
to behold a person highly gifted with musical talents, 
who has never learned to employ them in praise to Him 
from whom man receives all his faculties. 

I am sensible that as yet I have scarcely touched upon 
the main spring, which, among many, causes a devoted 
attention to music; I allude to the anticipated power of 
dazzling by the display of an elegant accomplishment, 
the hope of being the centre of a fashionable circle ; — 
but on this point I shall not now dwell. It is too pain- 
ful to anticipate the evils which result from these hopes 
and expectations, so often the ruin of females, or of all 
that is truly estimable in the female character. 
25 



290 DANCING. 

Permit me to hope that those of you whose intellectual 
powers are strengthened by discipline, whose minds are 
stored with a rich variety of knowledge and whose 
morals are elevated by reflection and study, and espe- 
cially those who are influenced by religious considera- 
tion, may be able to repress an inordinate love of admi- 
ration, and to enjoy the possession of elegant accom- 
plishments, unaccompanied by that restless vanity which 
finds happiness only in display. 

Dancing. 

Madame Campan, whose judicious opinions I have 
pleasure in repeating, observes : ' Accomplishments 
should not form the basis of the education of girls, but 
the first lessons in dancing and the piano should he 
given at about the age of seven years. Youthful limbs 
can place themselves more easily according to rules, 
which add to the graceful embellishments, and render 
them so natural that the fruit of lessons can be no 
longer distinguished ; it is also very certain that the 
physical developement and health of children gain 
much, where they contract in good time the habit of 
holding themselves up, and walking gracefully.' I am 
aware that dancing in many cases receives too great a 
share of attention, and what is still worse that it some- 
times creates and fosters vanity and a love of admiration 
in the youthful heart ; but this is not the only thing 
innocent in itself, which may be abused and perverted. 
Language is often made an instrument of evil : religion 
itself may be used as a cloak for hypocrisy, but we would 
not that either language or religion should be condemn- 
ed because they may be thus perverted. 

As a healthful exercise, dancing is recommended by 
most physicians. Dr. Warren, in his lecture delivered at 
Boston, in 1830, before the American Institute of Instruc- 
tion, remarks that 'next to walking in the open air, the 
best exercise for a young female is dancing. This 
brings into action a large part of the muscles of the 
body and lower limbs, and gives them grace and power.' 



DANCING. 291 

To those who are engaged in study during a large part 
of the day, some exercise of this nature seems absolutely 
necessary, especially in winter, when the weather con- 
fines females within doors. 

It is for this reason, as well as for the sake of improv- 
ing the external deportment and carriage of our pupils, 
that dancing is here taught and practised. But you are 
well aware that there is a great difference between young 
ladies receiving lessons at the seminary and practising 
wholly by themselves, or going to a public hall where 
young persons of both sexes mingle promiscuously, and 
attending at publics, or quarterly exhibitions. There are 
certainly evils attendant on such a course, which more 
than balance all the advantages to be derived from 
learning to dance — girls and boys associating before they 
consider themselves as ladies and gentlemen, either 
acquire a familiarity of address which in after life will 
be improper and disgusting, or begin to practise the arts 
of coquetry, which, ridiculous as they are at any period, 
appear still more so where we look for the honest sim- 
plicity of childhood. 

It is this improper manner of practising dancing, and 
the subsequent dissipation of after years, which has pre- 
judiced so many good people against an exercise which 
nature prompts, and which the Author of nature has 
never prohibited. Even the battle-horse is moved by the 
sound of martial music, and treads proudly to its mea- 
sures. And who that sees a child, or a young female 
moving in harmony with sprightly music, can look 
moodily upon the sight as though it were a sin against 
Him who adapts the ear to the nice perception of sound, 
makes the heart to answer in correspondent emotions, 
and gives to the muscular frame the power to express by 
motion, the character of these sounds? That in itself 
dancing is not offensive in the sight of Heaven, we may 
gather from the tenor of the scriptures. Among the 
pious of old we read of dancing as an expression of 
cheerfulness. David, in the overflowing joy of his heart, 
danced before the ark of God. Jeptha's daughter, a 
maiden of purity and innocence, went out with music 
and dancing to meet her father returning from battle. 



292 DANCING. 

Our Saviour himself in the parable of the prodigal son, 
in which the father is considered an allegorical repre- 
sentative of Him to whom we have every day need to 
say, ' Father I have sinned against thee' — our Saviour 
represents this father as having in his house music and 
dancing on the occasion of the penitent's return. 

While I would rescue this exercise from the reproach 
which I think has been improperly attached to it, I 
would condemn in the most decided manner those 
evils which have been suffered to connect themselves 
with it. Some of them I have already mentioned in re- 
marking upon promiscuous dancing-schools and public 
balls. I would observe that another evil connected with 
these, is the fondness for dress and display which they 
usually produce. Mothers, when their little darlings 
are old enough to go to a dancing school, are too apt to 
think they must appear very fine; their own boxes of 
jewelry are searched for ornaments, their watches di- 
vested of chains for the pretty necks of these miniature 
belles ; or, if circumstances permit, new ornaments are 
purchased; dresses are made which vie with the gossa- 
mer in lightness of texture, and this mimic representa- 
tion of a French doll is sent forth thus bedizened to at- 
tract the envy of her companions, and to imbibe the 
moral poison which will hereafter appear in her devotion 
to dress and her thirst for admiration. I could point 
out instances of females, whom nature has highly favored 
with beauty of person, talents, and most amiable dispo- 
sitions ; but yet the whole beautiful fabric has been de- 
formed by this one taint, which, taking deep hold in 
childhood, no after exertions could remove ; — like the 
blood of the murdered which superstition believes 
leaves an indelible mark on the murderer's hand, vanity, 
when it has once deeply stained a female bosom, can 
never be washed away. But I am wrong — there is a 
fount in which sins may be cleansed, and there are 
teome penitent Marys who, 

' O'er the faults of former years 
Have wept, and are forgiven.' 



DRAWING. 293 



Drawing. 

Drawing is the art of representing by means of lines 
upon y. fiat surface, the forms of objects and their relative 
situation. This accomplishment, so conducive to refine- 
ment of mind, is at once useful and ornamental. Every 
gradation in the art is pleasing, from the sketch of a sim- 
ple flower to the grandest historical design. 

All the arts which tend to the embellishment or com- 
fort of civilized life depend essentially on drawing. 

Painting has for its basis the art of drawing ; how much 
then do they err who attempt to teach it to those who 
have not attended to the principles on which drawing 
depends. A few years since, it was not uncommon for 
pupils in female academies and boarding schools to use 
colors as soon as they began to draw ; or at the most a 
few sketches of flowers or landscapes, made without rules 
or principles were required. 

In no art or science perhaps is genius more necessary 
than in drawing. But genius to be successful must be 
assisted by rules of art, and especially by a close observa- 
tion of nature, a resemblance to which is the foundation 
of all our admiration for the fine arts. 

Some knowledge of the principles of Geometry is very 
important for the pupil in drawing. The custom of draw- 
ing geometrical figures, and maps in the geography and 
history classes, besides its importance in these studies, is 
a useful exercise in drawing, as much as if this were the 
ultimate object in view. 

Drawing is an art in the attainment of which great in- 
dustry and perseverance are necessary. The pupil 
should commence with perpendicular and horizontal lines 
(which are by no means as easily made as some may im- 
agine) and proceed to curves, circles, ovals, cones, cylin- 
ders and squares. 

Afrer practising until these various figures may be easi- 
ly made ; parts of buildings, as arches, columns, doors 
and windows may be next attempted. Flowers aud fruit 
are drawn much more easily than figures which require 
accuracy in horizontal and perpendicular lines. Trees 
25* 



294 DRAWING. 

require much study; the various forms of foliage, the di- 
rection of the branches as pendant, erect or horizontal, 
the nature of the bark and the characters of the trunk, 
should all be studied from nature. Good copies are of 
great use, but every pupil of taste and genius will be led 
to the observation of natural objects. 

It is indeed one of the great recommendations of the 
study of drawing that it gives a new interest to the visible 
creation, and awakens in the mind new sources of enjoy- 
ment. The simple wild flower, the decayed tree, the ruin- 
ed building and the wild cascade, all present to the artist 
objects which please in contemplation, and which he de- 
lights to copy. The various forms and tints which are 
reflected to the eye from clouds, from the sky at sun-rise, 
or the pensive evening twilight, all are poetry and beau- 
ty to the soul of the painter. He regards with attention 
and admiration the pure blue sky of the zenith, as it con- 
trasts with the darker hue of the hoizon, variously affect- 
ed by the situation of the sun and the reflection of its 
rays upon the vapors which float near the surface of the 
earth, appearing red, violet or rose colored. 

The imitator of nature beholding the distant moun- 
tains in their faint, blue outlines, might in the words of a 
kindred spirit, exclaim, 

' Why do those cliffs of shadowy tint appear 
More sweet than all the. landscape smiling near ? 
'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, 
And robes the mountain in its azure hue.' 

And, if a moralist, he might add, 

' Thus with delight we linger to survey 
The promis'd joys of life's unmeasured way ; 
Thus from afar, each dim discovered scene 
More pleasing seems than all the past hath been.' 

Objects which to others may be disagreeable, give rise 
to the finest productions of the artist. Wherever the 
marks of time appear, he seems delighted to seize upon 
and immortalize the ruins ; — the decayed cottage with its 
sides and roof covered with moss, the dilapidated church, 
or castle, afford more picturesque objects for the pen- 
cil than the neat farm house, or the modern edifice. 



DRAWING. 295 

Thus a rustic in ragged garments, mounted upon an old 
and lean horse, is more picturesque and affords opportuni- 
ty for a more graphic delineation, than a well-dressed man 
upon a sleek looking poney. 

In drawing from copies, a rule and compass should not 
be used, except in measuring buildings. 

To the beginner it is useful to draw lines across the 
copy and the paper on which the delineation is to be made, 
marking them both into an equal number of squares ; thus 
the objects in the squares on the copy may be easily and 
correctly transferrer!. Threads, instead of lines, stretched 
across are equally useful to the learner and less injurious 
to the pictures. 

In drawing a landscape from nature it is well to select 
a gentle elevation with a large circumference of horizon. 
The scene to be copied may then, in imagination, be di- 
vided by certain perpendicular lines, these by being 
marked on the paper and intersected by what is termed 
the horizontal line, have the same effect in measuring 
distances as the squares in the method just described. 

There can be but one point of sight in drawing a land- 
scape, or but one spot at which the eye of the spectator 
is supposed to be fixed, from which, as from a point, all 
the objects must be comprehended. 

Sixty degrees of the horizon is considered as being the 
angle of vision ; that is, considering the eye as the centre 
of a circle and the horizon its circumference. Now you 
will perceive that the objects nearest the eye or on the 
foreground of the picture must occupy much greater 
space upon the picture than distant objects ; of course, 
we can represent a much greater number of objects in 
the distance. 

In copying a flower from nature, it is proper to begin 
with the centre and proceed outwardly with the leaves, 
placing them one above another in a manner correspond- 
ing to their natural arrangement. 

The drawing of the human figure is the most difficult 
as well as the highest department of the art. -It consti- 
tutes, indeed, a distinct branch, and it is absurd for one 
who has painted a few landscapes or flowers to suppose 
herself capable of execution in this with accuracy. 



296 DRAWING, 

Few young ladies attend to drawing sufficiently to be- 
come proficients in the delineation of the human figure. 
When many years of undivided and close attention are 
required to from a tolerable artist, neither school girls or 
their teachers should be censured, if, after a few months 
practice, the former cannot rival Raphael or West. 

A knowledge of Geology is of use to the landscape 
painter, as it teaches the distinctive characters of rocks, 
and their modes of stratification, the characters of moun- 
tains, and of the different formations of the earth. 

An acquaintance with Botany is also useful in flower- 
painting ; without this the pink might be represented 
with six stamens, and the lily with ten. A knowledge of 
flower painting is also very important to botanists, by en- 
abling; them to make sketches of the various vegetable 
productions. 

Among the different modes of painting is Oil painting ^ 
the colors of which are the most durable, and in which 
the shades may be made to blend in the most perfect 
manner. 

Mosaic painting Consists of an imitation of objects by 
means of a union of very small pieces of marble of vari- 
ous colors fixed in stucco, or mortar. If this is well exe- 
cuted, it will remain to remote ages without decay. Fine 
specimens of these composed of copies of the great Ital- 
ian masters, are to be seen in St. Peter's Church at Rome. 

Fresco painting is performed with colors diluted in 
water, and laid on a wall newly plastered, with which 
they incorporate ; they are almost as durable as the 
mortar itself. 

Painting in water colors is often called limning ; it 
is performed with colors mixed with water. This is the 
kind of painting most convenient for ladies ; it can be 
performed with neatness and without the disagreeable 
smell which attends on oil painting ; the latter however 
possesses many advantages over the former, and should be 
studied by all who aspire after great eminence in the art. 

Pencil and India ink shading appear neat and taste- 
ful, and considerable perfection may be attained in them 
with comparatively little study. 

Velvet, Chinese painting, &c. are methods by which 



DRAWING. 297 

handsome pictures are made, but they are almost wholly 
mechanical operations, and neither afford evidence of 
genius, or have a tendency to cultivate the mental facul- 
ties. .': : .s.J 

Drawing is considered the elder sister of painting, as 
it is the younger of geometry. The attempt to imitate 
by lines upon a flat surface the forms which we see 
in nature, is the commencement of the art of drawing. 

The Greeks had a tradition that drawing and sculp- 
ture took their rise by means of a young girl's drawing 
a shadow of her lover upon the wall, which her father 
cut out and modeled in clay. In the early attempts at 
drawing, there may be distinguished several periods ; 
1. Objects were delineated by rude shapeless lines ; 
for instance, an oval represented a head ; 2. These 
drawings were colored over with black, or some other 
color, and the eyes, eyebrows, nose, mouth, and hair, 
were marked with white upon the dark surface; 3. 
An attempt was made to givetanimation to pictures by 
representing the different color of the drapery. It was in 
this way, according to Homer, that Helen and An- 
dromache embroidered tapestry ; 4. Prominence and 
relief to objects was commenced by drawing lines in 
the back ground. These attempts soon showed what 
the power of the art might accomplish, and we find the 
Greeks, in the days of their glory, pre-eminent for their 
perfection in drawing and sculpture. The teacher of 
the great Apelles required his pupils to remain with 
him ten years. 

The Egyptians, as appears by the figures represented 
on walls of ancient temples and catacombs, appear to 
have made some progress in the art of drawing. These 
pictures are supposed to be hierographical representa- 
tions of historical events, or mythological fictions. 

The first of the Greeks wlu contended for the prize 
of painting at the public games at Corinth and Delphi, 
was Pensenus, the cousin and pupil of Phidias, a celebrat- 
ed artist. 

Zeuxis, and his rival Parrhasius, about 3^8 years 
before Christ, carried the art to great perfection. The 
latter is said to have excelled in throwing into his 



298 DRAWING. 

paintings a striking expression of grace and dignity 
He became so arrogant on account of his successes that 
he clothed himself in purple, wore a gold crown upon 
his head, and pretended to be a descendant of Apollo. 

Apelles connected with a correct delineation of na- 
ture, a highly finished and flattering coloring, and was 
considered as a master of portrait painting. But the 
fine arts, poetry and eloquence, sunk with the liberty of 
Greece. 

The Romans long remained indifferent to the art of 
design, and in the height of their glory never attained to 
Grecian perfection in any of the fine arts. After the 
introduction of Christianity the art of painting seemed to 
revive, and most of its finest productions for ages were 
connected with the Christian faith. In the fourth centu- 
ry the custom of placing the pictures of saints in church- 
es extensively prevailed both in the Eastern and West- 
ern Empires. Artists, stimulated both by genius and 
religious zeal, strove to excel each other in the execution 
of their works. 

In the 13th century, the art received in Italy a new 
impulse from the labors of Michael Angelo, Corregio, 
Raphael, Titian, Leonardi de Vinci, and several others 
almost equally distinguished. 

The various artists of Europe are considered as con- 
stituting schools, each of which has its peculiar manner 
or style of painting. 

The Florence School is distinguished for greatness, 
severity and majesty ; at the head of this was Michael 
Angelo, who delighted in being great and terrible, but 
sought little aid from grace or beauty. 

His knowledge of anatomy gave him great power in 
representations of the joints and muscles ; for which rea- 
son he often made choice of emaciated figures, the monk 
or hermit, attenuated with the severity of his vigils and 
abstinence, but with a countenance beaming high and 
sublime thoughts, were fit subjects for his pencil. 

The Roman School had at its head, Raphael Sanzio — 
he was distinguished for his accuracy in copying nature, 
rather than brilliancy of imagination. It was observed 
by a German artist, that ' if the Greeks sailed with maj- 



DRAWING. 299 

esty between heaven and earth, Raphael walked with 
propriety on the earth.' 

In the Venetian School, Titian (whose real name was 
Taziano Vecelli) was conspicuous. This school was 
distinguished for skill in the use of colors, for powerful 
effects, by contrasts of lights and shades. It was confined 
principally to oil paintings, while the Florence and Roman 
schools painted in water colors, or fresco. 

The Lombard School was distinguished for grace and 
softness ; Antonio AUegri, usually called Corregio, was 
the founder and chief of this school. 

The second Lombard School was distinguished for the 
brothers called the Caracci, each of whom excelled in 
particular departments of the art. 

The French School presents so many varieties of man- 
ner, that it is difficult to ascribe to it any prevailing char- 
acteristic. Poussin, who is called the Raphael of France, 
had no pupils, and formed no school. His works are 
distinguished by an antique appearance. Le Brun was 
a painter of invention and great power of execution. He 
studied the expression of the passions, and acquired much 
skill in their delineation. 

The German School, like the French, consisted rather 
of isolated individual artists, than an assemblage whose 
works were characterized by uniformity of manner. Al- 
bert Durer was an engraver and painter. His works, 
though numerous, were correct and finished, but not re* 
markable for taste, beauty, or sublimity. Holbein excelled 
in historical and portrait painting. One of his pictures, 
the ' Dance of Death,' is remarkable for a mixture of 
the grotesque and horrible. 

The Flemish School is said to have discovered, or, at 
least, first extensively practised oil painting. Peter Paul 
Rubens was at the head of this school. He excelled equal- 
ly in fruits and flowers, historical, portrait, and landscape 
painting. He seemed to possess the power of embodying, 
with perfect ease, the sprightly and beautiful conceptions 
of a mind rich in fancy and glowing with the inspiration 
of genius. 

The Dutch School is peculiar for the subjects which 
occupied the attention of its artists. The ale-house, the 



300 DRAWING. 

tavern, the mechanic's shop, seemed to afford the scenes 
which most delighted them, and called forth the efforts 
of their genius. This school is distinguished for correct- 
ness of perspective, fine representations of clouds, sea 
scenes, animals, fruits, flowers and insects, and excel- 
lence in everything which requires faithful imitation, or 
brilliant colorincr and niceness of execution. 

Rembrant Vanryn, the son of a miller of Leyden, is 
celebrated for his grotesque figures and low scenes, upon 
which he devoted much study and talents, perhaps equal 
to any of the masters of antiquity. 

The English School numbers many respectable artists, 
among whom are Vandyke, a pupil of Rubens. Lily, a 
portrait painter, is chiefly celebrated for his pictures of 
females. 

It has been objected to him, that his faces had 
too much sameness of expression, a certain languishing 
air and softness, and sweetness, the partly closed eye, 
which seemed to reveal tenderness and sensibility. But 
this might have been more the fault of the females, 
than of the painter, who probably wished to please his 
employers. 

Hogarth, the son-in-law of a painter, is exceeded by no 
artist, in works of humor. 

Sir Joshua Reynolds, is considered the founder of the 
English School of painting ; he united science to art, 
and did much towards reducing to system, scattered facts 
and principles. 

No artist in this school is more celebrated than our 
own countryman, Benjamin West, who was, for many 
years previous to his recent death, President of the Roy- 
al Academy of Design in London, and acknowledged as 
the first painter of his age. 

American artists have in general found in their own 
country less encouragement than abroad ; for this reason, 
and for the purpose of studying the ancient works of art 
with which Europe is enriched, many spend their days 
abroad, and add that lustre to the arts in foreign coun- 
tries which is vainly regretted in their own. 

The names of Trumbull, Inman, and many others 
stand high in the list of American painters. 



DRAWING. 301 

There are three distinct provinces in painting, such as 
have for their subjects man, the lower animals, and inan- 
imate nature. The first is termed historical painting, 
and includes not only subjects taken from history, but al- 
legorical representations and scenes from real life. This 
is the highest department of the art, requiring in the art- 
ist a lively conception of human passions and their vari- 
ous external appearances, a knowledge of anatomy, com- 
prehending not only the joints but the muscles of the bo- 
dy, and the almost infinite variety of expression which 
may be produced by their changes. Thus by the con- 
traction of two small muscles in the upper lip arises a 
look of contempt, while nearer the cheeks the expan- 
sion of two other small muscles and the contraction of the 
corresponding ones gives an expression of complacency 
and condescension. The historical painter must not on- 
ly understand and be able to express the most minute 
circumstances relative to the effect of the different pas- 
sions upon the countenance, but is required to delineate 
with accuracy the most insignificant member of the bo- 
dy. A bad hand or a disproportioned finger is sufficient 
to mar the beauty of the finest picture. Especially must 
the painter be able to group his figures in a picturesque 
manner, so that the tout ensemble shall make a striking 
and agreeable impression. In order to produce this ef- 
fect, he must first have the conception in his own mind. 
Chateaubriand says, ' the universe is the imagination of 
God rendered sensible.' The painter, though not pos- 
sessing power to bring into real existence the images in 
his mind, by means of the canvass can transfer them to 
the minds of others. Hogarth was peculiar for the pow- 
er of retaining in his mind's eye the various living scenes 
which passed before him, preferring to copy from these 
pictures, and taxing his memory with retaining them, 
rather than the dry rules of his art. 

The paintmg of animals, although considered distinct 
from landscape 'painting , is yet intimately connected with 
it, as landscapes are. in general, rendered more interest- 
ing by the introduction of living beings, as cattle graz- 
ing, or flocks reposing. Landscape painting admits of 
human figures, as seen at a distance ; but the character 
26 



302 DRAWING. 

of such paintings is lost by giving to figures too impor- 
tant a place. Rocks, ground, foliage, buildings, sky, 
and water allow to the landscape painter a wide scope in 
coloring. Every true painter will possess his own style 
of coloring, as much as every author of genius his own 
style of writing ; and it is as impossible for such a paint- 
er to convey his art to another, as for the writer to trans- 
fer his own power of expression. 

Genius has never failed to command respect, even 
among the rudest people and the most uncultivated state 
of society. Henry VIII. of England, a vain and licen- 
tious king, was proud of patronizing Hans Holbein, a 
distinguished painter of the German school. The artist 
was one day deeply engaged in finishing a work for the 
king, and being interrupted by the entrance of a great 
lord of the court, very unceremoniously turned him out 
of his room. The courtier, on making complaint to his 
majesty of the impudence of the painter, received the 
following answer : ' Of seven peasants I can make as 
many lords, but God only can make a Hans Holbein.' 

We have already remarked that females do not often 
pay sufficient attention to the art to excel in historical 
painting. There are some ladies in our country, who, by 
their copies of eminent paintings, have discovered a high 
degree of talent ; and could they have the opportunity of 
travelling for improvement, of devoting years to the study 
of the first works, and in the society of distinguished art- 
ists, their names might hereafter be enrolled among 
those who have gained, by the productions of the pencil, 
a name for future ages. But there are many causes to 
prevent females from aspiring to eminence in the fine 
arts, among which may be mentioned their physical con- 
stitutions. Few possess the firmness of health to endure 
years of such unremitting labor as are requisite to form 
the artist. Angelica Kauffmann became celebrated for 
her admirable productions, even in Italy, the land of 
painters. On going to England she received the most 
flattering attentions, was invited to paint the whole royal 
family, and made a member of the Royal Academy of 
the Fine Arts. It was here also that she became the 
victim of a most cruel revenge. An English artist hav- 



DRAWING. 303 

ing been rejected by Mademoiselle Kauffman, selected a 
dissolute footman, of a handsome person and insinuating 
address, whom he very richly dressed, and caused to be 
introduced to her as Count Horn, a nobleman of distinc- 
tion. A foreigner, and imperfectly understanding the 
language and manners of the country, she became the 
dupe of this artifice, which was triumphantly disclosed 
after she had become the wife of the pretended Count. 
She easily obtained a divorce, but allowed an annuity to 
the wretch who had lent himself to so base a plot. She 
died in Rome in 1807, leaving a large fortune to chari- 
table institutions. Angelica Kauffman was highly es- 
teemed by Dr. Johnson and other distinguished literary 
men, as well as the first artists of the day, and formed 
one of the most brilliant ornaments of a coterie of ladies, 
with whom such men were proud to associate. Among 
these ladies was a Miss Moser, distinguished for the 
beauty and delicacy of her flower-painting, and who was 
also a member of the Royal Academy. These are al- 
most solitary instances of females being publicly recog- 
nized as artists. 

Mrs. Damer, an English lady of high descent, of dis- 
tinguished beauty and grace, with a mind deeply and 
richly imbued with classic literature, and the star of the 
fashionable world, became suddenly the votary of the 
fine arts, especially sculpture. The following is the ac- 
count given of the trifling circumstance which first caus- 
ed her devotion to this art. When not over twenty years 
old, as she was walking with the historian, David Hume, 
a little Italian desired them to look at some plaster fig- 
ures. Mr. Hume good-naturedly examined and praised 
them, giving the boy a trifle for his encouragement. His 
fair companion afterwards satirically related this in com- 
pany, with an intimation that a grave philosopher might 
better occupy his time than in attention to paltry plaster 
images. Hume gravely replied, 'those images, young 
lady, were not made without the aid of both science and 
genius — -with all your attainments, you cannot produce 
such works.' Thus challenged, she privately procured 
modelling tools, and in a few days presented to her mon- 
itor a head moulded in wax. ' This, 5 said he, ' is clev- 



304 DRAWING. 

er. You have found it no easy task ; but it is much ea- 
sier to model in wax than carve in marble.' With a re- 
solution which always attends those who make great at- 
tainments, she procured marble and proper tools, and 
with great ingenuity copied the bust which she had made 
in wax. Soon after this, the public learned with aston- 
ishment that the only and beautiful daughter of Marshal 
Conway had forsaken the circles of fashion, banished 
from her mind all pretensions on the score of high birth, 
and was resolutely seeking to distinguish herself by what 
she felt to be the only true nobility, works of genius. 
She was now to be seen in a close cap, to keep the dust 
from her hair, and a long apron to preserve her damask 
gown and satin slippers, working in wet clay, or with an 
iron hammer in one hand and a steel chisel in the other, 
cunningly carving heads in marble. Although we can- 
not but admire the energy and enthusiasm of this un- 
common female, we still feel that she had stepped out of 
the legitimate province of woman ; and that it was so, 
appears from the fact, that with all her efforts and perse- 
verance, she did not attain the rank even of a second-rate 
artist. Had the same talents and industry been employ- 
ed in some manner more suitable to the delicacy of her 
frame, and the duties of her station, how much might 
she have benefited and improved the world. 

We have now, my dear pupils, considered the various 
branches included in a liberal course of female educa- 
tion. We have seen that the great object in view is not 
to form beings to dazzle the world with a glittering and 
transient splendor, but to give to society women with 
minds strengthened and prepared for the various duties 
of life, and capable of appreciating and rightly directing 
their influence. Of these various duties and this influ- 
ence we shall hereafter treat. 

The sphere of woman's duty is to be looked for in pri- 
vate and domestic life ; and although she may and ought 
to do all in her power to elevate, refine, and -embellish 
all that comes within her own circle, she should be cau- 
tious of suffering her desires to extend beyond it. If ge- 
nius, circumstance of fortune, or I might better say the 
providence of God, assign to her a more public and con- 



DRAWING. 305 

spicuous station, she ought cheerfully to do all that her 
own powers, aided by the blessing of God, can achieve ; 
and as far as human feelings will allow, act fearlessly 
of human censure, looking to a higher tribunal for the 
reward of her labors. 



SOT 



PARTING HYM N, 

SUNG BY THE PUPILS OF TROY FEMALE SEMINARY, AT THE 
CLOSE OF EXAMINATION, FEB. 16, 1831. 

Sisters ! We are now to part ; 
Long we've travell'd hand in hand : 
Affections, twin'd around the heart, 
Have gather'd close our happy hand. 
Love has smoothed the rough ascent 
Of learning's steep and arduous way, 
Giving us as on we went, 
A peaceful and unclouded day. 
Chorus. 

Partings shall cease, 

In the land of the blest ; 

There may we meet, 

Forever to rest. 

Sisters ! Momentshasten on ; 

And, yet, our toil 's not wholly done ; 

Thanks we owe to many here, 

For a patient, list'ning ear. 

But chief, to those, our grateful praise, 

In music's swelling notes we'll raise, 

Whose watchful and untiring care, 

Has help'd to form us what we are. 

Chorus. Partings shall cease, &c. 

Sisters ! We see a broken band ! 
For she* is in a foreign land, 
Who first, our grateful love might claim, 
Oh, lov'd and honor'd be her name. 
And one,\ the gentle and the good ! 
We see her not, where late she stood ; 
Her faithful labors, all, are done, 
Heav'n has taken back its own. 

Chorus. Partings shall cease, &c. 

* Mrs. Willard the principal, was then in France. 

t Mary Lydia Treat, a niece of the author, and the adopted 
child of Mrs. Willard. After pursuing a thorough and exten- 
sive course of education, she became a teacher in the insti- 
tution, in which capacity she exhibited a rare combination of 
meekness with decision, a dove-like softness with the most rigid 
faithfulness in the discharge of duty, a childish playfulness and 
gayety, with deep and fervent piety.— The examination room was 
at this time hung with black, the teachers dressed in mourning, 
and the pupils in half mourning for the recent death of one, whom 
all lamented as the " Gentle and the Good." 



308 PARTING HYMN. 



Sisters! Let our thoughts arise, 
Upwards to Him who rules the skies ! 
To Him, our blessings, all, we owe, 
To Him, should our affections flow; 
Tlien will he guide our wand'ring way, 
To regions of eternal day. 
Father in Heaven we bow to thee ! 
Oh, may our praise accepted be. 

Chorus. Partings shall cease, &c. 



W 17] 84 



• & ^. -m?» ^ ^ 























4 p>. 





«U* ! 














•^ 




4 o. 






V **!oL'* 




•' ,G* 






,v 



*o 















o ..... ^cP ^ ..„ 











W 



, % •** ^ O ^^ A^ 







